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PROBLEMS OF THE 
FINISHING ROOM 

(FIFTH EDITION) 



A Reference and Formula Manual for 
Furniture Finishers, Woodworkers, 
Builders, Interior Decorators, Voca- 
tional Schools, Etc. 



BY 
WALTER K. SCHMIDT 

ANALYTICAL CHEMIST 



PUBLISHED BY 

THE PERIODICAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 

GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN 



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iJAN-2?3 



C1A600803 






Copyrighted by 

The Periodical Publishing Company 

Grand Rapids, Michigan 

1922 



AUTHOR'S NOTE 

The cordial reception by woodfinishers generally 
afforded the previous editions of Problems of the 
Finishing Room, has influenced the author to revise 
and enlarge the old publication — hence in this edition 
will be found much information not contained in the 
first four editions of this book. The additions com- 
prise many of the finishes developed within the past 
two years, together with a description of the new 
materials involved. 

The formulas which are offered have all passed 
their experimental stage. The methods are practical, 
the results positive. In commending them to the wood 
finisher, confidence is expressed that many a difficulty 
will have been overcome for him. 

Inasmuch as business conditions, and particularly 
those relating to all branches of chemistry and allied 
arts, are unsettled and unstable, it should be under- 
stood by the reader that all prices quoted in this vol- 
ume are such as would likely prevail in normal times. 

While the author has gone much into detail in the 
following pages, he calls attention to the constantly 
increasing number of stain and finishing possibilities 
that are coming out from time to time. The reader 
is commended to the pages of the Furniture Manufac- 
turer and Artisan in future numbers for many notes 
and formulas which may be incorporated in the blank 
pages in this book, by means of which he can keep up 
to the minute in finishing problems. 

WALTER K. SCHMIDT. 

Grand Rapids, Mich., October 1, 1922. 



INDEX TO CONTENTS 

Page 

1. The Finishing Room — Scant attention paid to finish- 

ing room. Where best to locate finishing room. 
Finishing room of the future. Proper location of 
department. How to heat a finishing room. Ques- 
tion of best heating system. Much light essential 
to a finishing room. Whitewash undesirable in a 
finishing room. Chipping off of whitewash hurts 
finish. Direct rays of the sun to be avoided in 
room. Hot water a constant need 17 

2. System for the Finishing Room — Value of records 

of matchings. Equipment of finishing room. The 
question of weights. Laboratory equipment. Varia- 
tion in weights. How to use apparatus. Results 
depend on filler used. How to use card reference 
system in staining. Card a record for future ex- 
periments. Record card for oil stains. Carrying 
out chart 25 

3. The Staining and Coloring of Woods — Art of stain- 

ing essential in good furniture. Stain should en- 
hance wood's beauty. Requisites of a good stain. 
Permanency and fastness of a stain. Knowledge 
of mordants necessary. Wood changing affects the 
stain 33 

4. Knowledge of Woods Necessary — Wood must be sea- 

soned and dried. Unevenness of finish troublesome.. 39 

5. Preparation of Wood Before Using — Old methods 

good but too slow today. Finishing process is com- 
menced. Sanding and sponging. Sponging omitted 
on some grades. Precautions necessary many times. 
The danger of "cutting through" 41 

6. The Importance of Good S"anding — Good sanding es- 

sential to good finish. Reducing sanding to the 
minimum. Must have knowledge of sandpaper. 
Sanding for uniformity of results. Many varieties 
of sandpaper. How garnet sandpaper is made. The 
testing of sandpaper. Moisture is injurious to sand- 
paper 47 

7. The Process op Staining Woods — Foreman finishers 

should have aptness. The need of following a sys- 
tem. Getting the same stain shade. Staining the 
inside of case goods adds refinement. The best 
method of applying water stain. One great diffi- 
culty with stain ; 55 

8. The Classification of Stains — Water stains are" 

most satisfactory. Water stains produce every 
color shade. Acid stains introduced. Uniformity 
in color essential. How an acid stain should be 
made up. Water stains give best results 61 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



Page 
y. Staining with Certainty of Results — Preparing 
stains so as to avoid any re-staining. Producing 
odd shades. The foreman finisher dictates sup- 
plies. Water stain the most workable 67 

10. General Rules for Staining Wood — Results vary 

with same stain. Results are dependent on tex- 
ture. Locality influences color. Aniline dyes more 
uni/orm than others. Antagonism of various ani- 
lines. A practical illustration given. Great need 
of care and cleanliness. Extracts exposed to air 
are difficult to handle. Heat will increase percent- 
age of solubility. Color materials should be kept 
dry. Moisture absorbed from air by some colors.... 71 

11. The Applying of Stain to Wood — Stain best applied 

by brushes. Sponge used with strong alkalines. 
Avoid brush with curling hair. Neutral oil best 
preservative for brushes. Protect the hands by oil 
or vaseline. Dominating color stains are brown. 
Fuming now considered indispensable. Better 
staining methods coming. Groups of stains. Shun 
stains made of paint pigment. Black nigrosine the 
key color. Four classes of stains. The old way of 
finishing. Valuable procedure 79 

12. Spreading Stain on Large Surfaces — Finish must 

overcome all poor cabinet conditions. Chief diffi- 
culty lies in laying of wood. Methods of evening 
up coat stain. Danger of lifting end grain on 
veneers. Some means of correction. Shortcomings 
of cabinet work fixed up by finisher 87 

13. The Penetration of Wood Stains — Getting ready for 

staining process. How to apply stains on wood. 
Keep alcohol stains from the light. Staining is 
not merely coloring. Solubility of colors must be 
known. Good stain must be clear at 40 degrees F. 
Insoluble portions of stains must be removed. 
Nature of spirit oil stains is a suspension 91 

14. Knowledge of Veneers Necessary — Many veneer 

troubles are found by finisher. Trouble with var- 
nish and veneer. Checks in veneer ai'e serious. 
Trouble may be traced back to laying of veneer. 
Poor work result of too much haste. Veneer will 
check after finishing, if before it. Thin shellac as 
finisher on veneer 97 

15. Process of Staining Veneer Work — All veneer does 

not need same method. Avoid use of glue size to 
stiffen fuzz. S'hellac will stiffen and hold up fuzz. 
Sanding to give faded appearance. Contention as 
to sponging veneer. "Blisters" in veneers. Correct 
weakness in veneer early. Experiments in spong- 
ing veneer. Correcting defects in mahogany. 
Bringing back indentations. Defects show up 
equally with beauties 103 



INDEX TO CONTENTS 



Page 

16. Preparation of Crotch Veneers — How to fill holes 

in the crotch veneer. Do repair work in the cabinet 
room. When defects escape the eye of cabinet man.. 109 

17. Dipping or Tanking Stains — Staining by dipping is 

rapid method. Colors have varying affinities for 
woods. Less vehicle absorbed on hardwood. Dip- 
ping stain should be stronger than brushing. Stain 
should be kept even in temperature. The use of 
asphaltum. Some oppose dipping methods. Test- 
ing for uniform color. Stain not up to original 
test. Staining by immersion Ill 

18. Important Function of Filler — Filling an impor- 

tant process. Paste fillers for porous woods. Good 
filler must be impervious to water. Foreman must 
understand fillers. Filler must be in harmony with 
stain. Use of silex in filler. Preparation of fillers. 
Mineral turpentine economical. Apply filler after 
wood is "cleaned up." Finishing should be done 
across grain. Bent wood gives some trouble in 
finishing. Using shellac to fill holes in finishing 117 

19. Making and Using of Filler — Ingredients for fillers 

are three. Filler is determined by wood. Oil binds 
pigment solidly. Brown japan best drier for filler. 
"Know How" necessary in making filler. Ideal 
white filler. Care needed to keep pigment uniform. 
Reducing paste filler to a liquid. Consistency of 
filler regulated by nature of wood. How to clean 
off filler. Important to keep filler stirred. Shellac 
aids in preserving translucency of filler 125 

20. Construction of a Finishing Room — Two types of 

fuming box. Door should be sectional. Fuming 
box criticised. Ammonia water must not touch 
steam pipe. Fuming expedited by use of tan bark 
extract. Use of test box is recommended. Color 
of wood varied by strength of bark extract. How 
to obtain ammonia. A practical fuming box. How 
Rockford fuming box is made. Is built of matched 
stock. Plan for handling the ammonia. Free escape 
of ammonia necessary. Simple form of canvas 
fuming box. Air tight box inexpensive. Work- 
man can govern shade in fuming 133 

21. Something More About Fuming — Finish shade con- 

trolled by length of fuming. Texture of soil has 
influence on fuming. How to shorten time of 
fuming. Oak yields best results with ammonia. 
Efficiency of tannin in fuming. Comparative re- 
sults in fuming. Uniformity produced by use of 
shellac 151 

22. Fuming Oak by Staining Process — Suggestion in 

staining process. Guarding against "piling up." 
Method for use with smaller surfaces. Important 
items in procedure. The result of careful work. 



10 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

Page 
Color to be judged only with final finish. Thor- 
oughness in finish brings profit. Potash solution 
helps in shading. Flakes prove difficult to stain. 
Care needed with iron coat. How to avoid use of 
iron coat 155 

23. Acids and Their Use in Fuming — Where the tannins 

come from. Gallic acid comes from gall nuts. 
Gallic acid an important astringent. Pyrogallic 
acid results from heated gallic acid. Tannin and 
pyro are of uniform strength. Why colors pro- 
duced is a matter of chemistry 161 

24. Glue Joints that Part in Fuming — Procedure to 

follow 165 

25. The Manipulation of Stains — Few formulas come 

within solvent limits 167 

26. Quality Needed in Staining — Transparent stains and 

clear filler to be used. Blotchy work results from 
oiling between coats. Filler should match only 
general shade. Filler may be omitted with birch 
or gum 173 

27. Uniformity of Color Desirable — Most water stains 

are anilines. Tannic acid an important factor. 
What to do when color is used 177 

28. Use of Oil Stains in Winter — Effect of chill on 

stains. The three prominent solvents for stains. 
Creosote oil does not make good stain. Limpid oils 
are best for stains. Getting uniformity of results. 
Use of loaded oil brings on troubles. "Doctoring" 
formulas. Oil solvents should be free from naph- 
thaline. Trouble in "lifting." Permanent finish 
prevented by use of gas oil 181 

29. Srecial English Oak Finishes — Insight into meth- 

ods of special finishes. Producing high lights. 
Kenilworth finish. 16th Century and Stratford 187 

30. Birch and Its Various Finishes — Birch as a strong 

cabinet wood. Difficulty in matching birch. Birch 
not adapted to gray finish. Pleasing shades are 
produced on birch. Birch takes any shade of brown. 
Brown mahogany bad to produce on birch. Birch 
makes beautiful imitation of cherry. Birch can 
be fumed 189 

31'. The Finish of American Walnut — What is best 
finish for American walnut? May be used bleached. 
Advises use of rich brown with Van Dyke filler. 
How the bleaching is done. Other methods of 
bleaching. Finish on American walnut too scant .... 193 

32. Staining Willow, Reed and Cane — Two pi-ocesses in 
coloring willow. The question of various shades. 
Alkalies and their after effect. Spirit soluble colors 
u?-ed for shades. How to get a mixture of colors.... 197 



INDEX TO CONTENTS 11 

Page 

33. Browns from Tannin and Potash — Getting tints 

depending on strength of materials 201 

34. Browns from Potassium of Permanganate — The 

work of cold water stains 203 

35. Fads and Fancies in Finishes — Oak adapts itself to 

novelties. Oak permits of artistic coloring. Classi- 
fication of colormgs. Ten shades and many varia- 
tions. Fillers must be of harmonious tones. Gun 
metal a beautiful effect. Maple offers various ways 
of coloring. How bluish cast may be obviated. 
Finishing of maple. Novelties on oak. Russian 
brown 205 

36. Blending Woods a Difficult Process — Blending be- 

fore finish is started. How to make a blending 
brush. Reduction of asphaltum makes a good blend 
stain. Strength of stain depends on workman's 
aptness. Water stain on filled wood is practical. 
Blending mixture for fumed oak 213 

37. Bleaching Wood Before Staining — Oxalic acid 

bleach for dark spots. Removing iron spots 215 

38. Ebonizing Birch, Maple, Beech, Etc. — Woods that 

imitate ebony well. Ebonizing large surfaces 217 

39. Getting Color Results without Anilines — How to 

obtain certain stains. Use of alkali not recom- 
mended. Decoctions not without uncertainties. 
What various combinations produce. Many yel- 
lows produced. Further interesting combinations.. 219 

40. The Staining of Drawers — Staining drawers adds 

refinement. Dull finish is the proper thing. Good 
finish for purpose 223 

41. Changing Finishing Stain Shades — Two essentials 

in ready-made stains. Constant need of changing 
shade. Color value highest in water stains. Water 
stains in any shade. Adding color to prepared 
stain. Danger of "lifting" the veneer. Avoid cut- 
ting through the veneer. Two light stains are bet- 
ter than one heavy 225 

42. Coal Tar Products in Finishing Room — Light oil 

fraction produces coal tar products. Some of the 
coal tar products. How various products are ob- 
tained. Benzols refined in this country. Properties 
of various benzols. Benzols best suited to artisan. 
Various uses of benzols. Benzol as a diluent. Oil 
soluble stain outlet for benzol. How benzol figures 
in varnish. Further uses of benzol 229 

43. Enameling Furniture — Enamel work needs proper 

surface. "Lapping" to be avoided. Inexpensive 
varnish 237 

44. Lacquer Enamels — Use of lacquer surfacer. Spray- 

ing lacquer enamels. Lacquering on metal 239 



12 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

Page 

45. Spirit Stains in Finishing — Process to be followed.. 241 

46. The Care of Stain Material — Keep liquid stain in 

cool place. Keep sample of original stain. Many 
stains vary in color value. Use of sulphate of 
iron important 243 

47. Finishing Gum and Its Uses — Walnut crystals em- 

ployed. Gum wood produces better than natural 
rinish. One coat stain for Van Dyke 245 

48. System in Matching Stain Colors — Importance in 

matching color. Procedure in matching. Work 
from dark to light. Testing samples. Kind of 
work makes great difference. Workmg on per- 
centage basis. Procedure continued. Ascertaining 
correct strength. Testing the solution. Effect of 
atmosphere on chemicals. Age of finish of golden 
oak effects matching 247 

49. Surfacing and Varnishing — Surface when goods are 

dry. Importance of early work being done well. 
Avoid great temperature changes in varnish. What 
is best surfacer? Most varnish surfacers contain 
pigment. Use same grade for surfacer as for body. 
Tested formula for surfacer. Less varnish used 
than when shellac is used. Method of stainmg 
maple as mahogany. Imitation oak finish. Pig- 
ment surfacer not good on mahogany. The use 
of bleached shellac. In sanding large surfaces. 
Thin varnish is best reducer. NeeJ of drymg 
between succession of coats. Why some finish coats 
do not dry. Secrets of varnish drying. Keeping 
varnish clean. How to get proper drying of var- 
nish. Rubbing and polishing. Coarse rubbing with 
pumice stone. Use of rotten stone. Method used 
in furniture factories. Felt used in rubbing with 
pumice. When to do fine rubbing. Formula for 
polish. Polish plain surfaces crosswise. How to 
make satin finish. To produce lustreless finish. 
Finishing by dipping. Pigment surfacer formula. 
Needs much time for hardening. How much stain- 
ing may be done rapidly 253 

50. Varnishes and Their Drying — Demand for quick 

drying. The cause of mushy coats. Varnish dry- 
ing depends on. Best drying condition 35 to 45 
per cent humidity. Three pomts necessary to var- 
nish drying. Desirable condition. Finishing room 
should be conditioned. Successful method for dry- 
ing purposes 271 

51. Just How Varnish is Made — Ingredients of varnish. 

two oils are utilized. Process of manufacture. 
Evidences of poor varnish. Removing varnish. 
Whitening of varnish. Hair-lines on piano finish ... 273 

52. What Constitutes a Good Varnish — How good var- 

nish works. Varnish tests. Hardness of varnish. 



INDEX TO CONTENTS 13 

Page 
Test in room of 60 degrees F. Avoid spirit varnish 
in high class work. Brilliancy and lustre. Dura- 
bility sacrificed to finish 279 

53. Protection in Buying Varnishes — Varnish selling 

methods changed. Testing before buying. Gravity, 
viscosity, flash tests. Determining viscosity. Use 
of the flash test 283 

54. Some Troubles with Varnish — Common fault with 

varnish. Things to avoid in varnishes. More faults 
that are common. Refinishing patchy work 287 

55. Varnish Terms in Finishing Room — Shop terms for 

varnish. Other names for varnish 289 

56. Shellac and Its History — Little information avail- 

able. Beware of adulterated shellac. Prices vary. 
Shellac comes from India. Used for ages past. 
Present day uses. Two crops each year. Grading 
shellac. bleaching process. Bone-dry shellac. 
"Hank" shellac. French polishing methods. Source 
of shellac supply. Crop failures affect price. Fe- 
male produces the raw material. Harvesting the 
raw product. Grinding and heating. Wages paid 
to native workers. Demand for shellac constantly 
increasing. Testing shellac 291 

57. Finishing with Shellac — French polishing. Use of 

shellac to produce soft finishes. Shellac is eco- 
nomical. Use as first coater. Rubbing down. 
Worthlessness of dried shellac. Denatured alcohol 
is best solvent. Brush to use with shellac. 
Weather conditions are important. Drying room 
necessary. Rub with oil. Finishing floors. Shel- 
lac substitutes. Shellac sticks 307 

58. Antique Walnut — A new finish and how it is pro- 

duced 317 

59. Italian Walnut — Stain and filler for new and pop- 

ular finish 319 

60. Italian Oak Rennaisance — Produced with wood 

lacquer and wax finish. Use of mouldings and 
armaments 321 

61. Things Worth Knowing About Linseed Oil — Source 

of linseed oil. Green flax produces inferior oil. 
Refining the oil. Adulterants of linseed oil. Fish 
oil frequently used. Darkening wood with linseed 
oil. Filler not desirable when thus darkening. 
"Bringing up" surface by sandpapering. Avoid- 
ing muddy look 323 

62. Air Brush Equipment in Finishing — S'ales depend 

on finish. Air brush does best work. Air brush 
economical. Material sets quicker with air brush. 
Finishes should be heated. Two well known air 
brush methods. Two styles or aerons. Spraying 



14 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

Page 

done in a fumexer. All parts can be coated in one 
operation. Heavier coat than with brush 329 

63. Explaining a Standard — The meaning of U. S. P 335 

64. Modern Wood Lacquer — Meaning of term "wood 

lacquer." Metal lacquers fail on wood. Use of 
lacquer increasing. Stains on metal work. Prep- 
aration of wood for lacquer. Thinning. Short time 
necessary between coats. Resin provides solids in 
lacquer. Film resists heat. Use of Zaponite 337 

65. Chinese and Japanese Lacquers — Process centuries 

old. How made. Chinese lacquer poisonous. Ap- 
plying Chinese and Japanese lacquers 343 

66. Polychrome Finishes — Popularity of this new meth- 

od of finishing. Three methods in general use. 
Should be coated with lacquer 347 

67. Pigment Colors Used in Polychroming — Valuable 

tables of color mixtures 355 

68. Burnish Powders — How to mix and apply bronzing 

powders. Finishing picture frames and other small 
objects by burnishing method 369 

69. Government Protection to Manufacturers — At- 

tempts to prevent adulterations. Turpentine has 
many substitutes. State authorities prosecute. 
Penalty for offending 373 

70. The Care of Raw Finished Stock — Storing finished 

stock. Storage room ought to be dark. Finishing 
room a place of concern. Lax methods encountered. 
Overcoming poorly matched work. Hints for over- 
coming difficulties. Novice has trouble producing 
shades 377 

71. Cost Keeping in Finishing — Costs for finishing. 

Process for brush fuming. Process is economical... 381 

72. Storage of Finishing Materials — Two familiar sys- 

tems for storing. Systems of battery tanks. Waste 
and sloping prevented. Roll top cabinets for oil. 
Oil room on systematic basis. Distribution of oil in 
factory 383 

73. Special Hints to Artisans — Applying gold leaf. How 

to avoid "lapping." Finishing open and close grain 
woods. Making heat stains out of wood. Keeping 
varnish brushes in condition 389 

74. Smoke Stacks and Metal Preservatives — Smoke 

stack paint needs quality. The best stack paint.... 393 

75. Rubbing and Polishing Methods — Great advance- 

ment in methods. Various methods employed. Felt 
pad is best kind of polisher. Never rub across 
grain. Cost is mere trifle. Every edge and corner 
reached 395 



INDEX TO CONTENTS 15 

Page 

76. Comparing Color Solution — For testing solutions. 

How the colorimeter operates. How science aids 

the artisan 399 

77. Weights and Measures — Accuracy a prime requisite. 

Confusion of several standards. Metric system 
simple. Weights should be stamped. Application 
of metric system. Too many afraid of metric 
system 403 

78. Stain Formulas and Methods 409 

79. New Standard Finishes — Formulas 475 

80. Liquid Glues 489 

81. Polishing by Tumbling — Process for a positive pol- 

ishing 505 

82. Polishes in Furniture Finishing — French polishing. 

Polishing formula. Inexpensive furniture polish. 
Furniture cleaner. PreseFving finish on pianos. 
An equal temperature necessary. The use of 
"revivers" 507 

83. Valuable Recipes and Formulas — Frosted glass. 

Sticking paper to tin. To remove specks or mahog- 
any finish. Discolored woods cannot be remedied. 
Other recipes for common faults 515 

84. Ground Color for Graining — Ground work for grain- 

ing. Some of the colors used. Other colors 521 

85. Resilvering Mirrors — Bassett's method is popular 

one. Temperature should be 100 degrees F. The 
operation of resilvering. Use only rain or distilled 
water. Three solutions used. Applying silvering 
solution. Coating over with paint. Absolute clean- 
liness needed. More of the procedure. Heat will 
discolor silvering. Make up and use of three 
solutions 525 

86. Working with Glass and Celluloid — White letter- 

ing on glass. Ornamental work. Bronze lettering. 
Cementing celluloid. Cleaning mirrors 537 

87. Preventing Brass from Tarnishing — Brass must be 

protected in plating operation 541 

88. An Acid Proof Table Top — Formula for acid proof 

table top. A modified formula, Ebonizing the top.. 543 

89. Paint, Varnish and Enamel Removers — How vari- 

ance in shade is produced. Removing oil and paint. 
Another remover. Removing enamel and tin solder. 
Paste that removes old paint. Changing a finish. 
The formulas that will do it. Removing dry paint.. 547 

90. Wood Putty and Fillers — Making wood putty and 

fillers. Cements for fillers. Stopping for cabinet- 
maker's work. Crack fillers. For work on mahog- 



any 



557 



16 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

Page 

91. For the Cleaning of Leather — Cleaning leather. 

Renewing color. Various methods. Paste and 
polish helps. Water dressing. Refinishing rough 
leather. Avoid color in last coat of finish. OtHer 
hints for care and finish of leather 563 

92. For the Matching of Finishes — Formula for match- 

ing finishes 571 

93. Dents, Defects and Knots — Serious dents can be 

raised. Wood can be replaced successfully with 
cement. Veneer blisters removed 573 

94. Help Offered in Fixing Formulas — Anilines fur- 

nished by publishers. Method of "fixing" a for- 
mula. How to be certain of results 575 

95. By-Products of Coal — -Evolution of the raw product 

— coal — through many refinements to anilines, 
medicines, etc. 577 



CHAPTER I 

PLANNING THE FINISHING ROOM 

TOO often in the planning of the furniture, piano 
or other woodworking factory scant attention is 
given to the finishing room. Just why this is, is 
difficult to conceive because this department is one of 
the most important in the whole factory. The cost of 
finishing is no inconsiderable item in the cost of pro- 
duction, and as the reputation of the goods produced 
depends upon the finish as much, or more, than upon 
any other single item, there is every reason why this 
department should receive every attention necessary 
to raise its efficiency to the highest point of perfection. ^^^ scant 

In the factories of more than one story, the finish- attention 
ing room is usually located at the top. This is done as paid to 
a matter of convenience in the handling of stock as finishing 
well as to have it as far as practicable from the dust room. 
of the woodworking departments. While the top story 
has many advantages over any other part of the fac- 
tory for the location of the finishing room, it has a 
few disadvantages, and provision should be made to 
counteract them. 

In the first place the whole accumulation of gases 
of the various departments below the finishing room 
will rise and ultimately reach the top story. This fact, 
together with the fact that all the materials used in 
finishing generate a considerable quantity of gas, extra 
provisions should be made for carrying it away. In 
making this provision, we find the top story possesses 
advantages not to be found in other flats. Ventilators 
may be put in the roof at regular intervals, the num- 
ber of these ventilators to depend on their capacity and 
the amount of gas to be carried away. There are many 
forms of ventilators in use, and it is not for us to dis- 
cuss the merits of any particular kind, the chief con- 
sideration being that they are large enough to carry 
off" the gas and be easily regulated. 

But while we are considering the gases and vapors 



18 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



WHERE BEST 
TO LOCATE 
WORKROOM. 



FINISHING 
ROOM OF THE 
FUTURE. 



that may arise from the floors below, we must not 
overlook the fact that many of those given off by the 
finishing process follow the floor; in fact, they seek 
the lowest level. Thus naphtha, benzole and kindred 
hydrocarbon compounds, in their process of evapora- 
tion, produce gaseous compounds that are heavier than 
air and consequently sink to the lowest level. This is 
contrary to the general understanding of gases, a fact 
to be reckoned with. For instance, naphtha used in 
large quantities is dangerous because in a case where 
the boiler room may be in the basement the fumes or 
gases may follow the floor down the elevator shaft with 
dangerous results. 

The ventilating system therefore would have to be 
arranged to provide ceiling and floor exhaust, so that 
the floor of the finishing room would have an outward 
exhaust. 

This is an essential provision where goods are 
dipped in so-called oil stains. The ventilating proposi- 
tion has its direct bearing upon the insurance rate, as 
insurance companies are mindful of the dangers aris- 
ing from the gases evolved by the drying processes 
of a finishing room. 

The finishing room of the future will be a place of 
rapid processes. Instead of having to wait days be- 
tween the various processes it will be only a matter 
of hours ; and instead of it requiring weeks to com- 
plete the whole process the thing will be accomplished 
in a few days at the most. Already in the varnish room 
the number of days required has been reduced to as 
many hours. Just what this means in dollars and cents 
to the manufacturer of finished articles, each one can 
best figure out for himself; but it means a big thing in 
rush seasons when time is limited. It is important 
that in planning the finishing room and its equipment 
consideration be given to the claims of the modern var- 
nish drying room. 

In laying out the finishing room and locating the 
various processes, it is important to have the stock 
follow from one process to the other with as little mov- 
ing as possible. In a factory with only one elevator 
the ideal finishing room is one in which the stock 



PLANNING THE FINISHING ROOM 19 

is unloaded from the elevators into the staining and 
filling department; and when this process is finished, 
the stock is moved toward the shellacing department, 
then on to the sanding and varnishing departments. 
Both the varnish and the rubbing rooms should be in 
close proximity to the stock room so that the goods, 
when varnished, may pass immediately into the rub- 
bing room. This brings the goods back into the ele- 
vator. PROPER 

If the dipping process is used in staining, filling or location of 
varnishing, the space required for these operations department. 
should be partitioned oflf froni the other departments. 
This should be done in the interest of those not en- 
gaged in dipping. The great amount of stain or var- 
nish, suddenly spread out, generates a vast amount of 
nauseating gases and if the work is done in open shop, 
the whole room is affected. The very best ventilating 
system possible to devise should be installed in the dip- 
ping room to carry off these gases and not allow them 
to escape to the other departments. Of course, the 
gases generated and confined to the dipping room are 
equally as bad for the man there as for those in the 
other departments. But the fewer men affected the 
better. 

A factory recently installed a system whereby the 
product is carried on trucks, especially built, from the 
first operation in the finishing department straight 
through the finishing room, for sanding, staining, fill- 
ing, shellacing, waxing and varnishing. There was no 
useless handling; space was saved, time and labor less- how to heat 
ened and better results were obtained. a finishing 

The question of heating the finishing room cannot ^°'^'^- 
receive too much attention. A fairly uniform tempera- 
ture throughout the day and night is of great advan- 
tage in drying finishing materials. If anything like 
good work is to be done in the varnish room it is abso- 
lutely necessary that there shall be proper facilities 
for heating. This department is required much earlier 
in the fall and a little later in the spring than are usu- 
ally some of the others. If a vacuum heating system is 
in use and exhaust steam is used for heating, a separate 
system should be installed for heating the varnish room. 



BEST SYSTEM. 



20 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

It requires considerable steam to run the pumps of a 
vacuum system and if an independent system is in- 
stalled and live steam used, no pumps will be required. 
The average varnish room in this way can be heated 
with less steam than would be required to run the 
pumps of the vacuum system alone. This independent 
system need be used only when the vacuum system is 
not required throughout the whole factory. 

The question of what kind of a heating system is 
QUESTION OF jjgg^ adapted for the finishing room need not be dis- 
cussed at any length here. While the modern air sys- 
tem may be preferred for the other departments, there 
is too much danger of dust being conveyed into the var- 
nish room for it to find favor with the finishers. Steam 
heating is pretty generally admitted to be the best 
suited for this department. 

But the question whether to use radiators or rows 
of pipes, and whether to place them along the wall 
near the floor or overhead near the ceiling, is not so 
easily disposed of. Each has its advantages and dis- 
advantages. If steam pipes are used and are placed 
overhead they are out of the way ; but overhead pipes 
are hard on the workman. If it is quite necessary to 
locate the pipes overhead, they should be placed along 
the wall above the windows, and not immediately above 
the men's heads, as I have sometimes seen them. But 
it is much better to place them along the wall near the 
floor. A better radiation may be obtained with the 
pipes there. More uniform temperature above and be- 
low, and more pleasant conditions for the workmen, are 
some of the chief advantages. 

Radiators placed at regular distances along the 
wall will be found to be the most satisfactory way of 
heating. With these a much more uniform temperature 
may be obtained and maintained. With the steam 
pipes one must either have them all on or all off. The 
usual way of regulating the temperature is: When 
the temperature is a little too low, turn on the steam; 
when it gets a little too warm, turn it off". But with 
the radiators, the actual number required to keep the 
correct temperature may be kept in use throughout the 
day. A thermostat will settle the question. They are 



ESSENTIAL TO 
FINISHER. 



PL ANNING THE FINISHING ROOM 21 

not expensive and adjust the temperature automati- 
cally. They stop all argument between the workmen 
if one wants it hot and the other cool. It establishes a 
de facto temperature and all arguments cease. 

Light, and plenty of it, is essential to the finishing 
room. But light is not everything. The quality of 
light is as important as the quantity. Some factories 
are making the serious mistake of putting corrugated 
glass in their windows, the light from which has a de- 
pressing effect upon the workmen, and the absolute ^^^^"^/,™^ 
seclusion which it provides makes factory life just a 
little more like prison life than is either necessary, or 
in the interest of employes or employer. Under such 
condition the best results are not possible. 

Man is made with a long range of vision, reaching 
away off to the horizon. It is true that the vision is 
adjustable and may be focused on objects near or far. 
It is this focusing, or continual changing of vision 
from long to short range that is necessary during out- 
door life, which is so restful to the eye and keeps it in 
:ood condition. It is only when we attempt a contin- 
ual restriction of the range of vision that trouble with 
the eyes begins. Many men are performing their duties 
in a perfunctory way, but moving around listlessly with 
weary eyes and aching head as a result of this re- 
stricted vision. It is not necessary that the man stand 
and look out the windows to get relief. If the eye, 
even for a moment, can reach out beyond the hard stone 
walls to the distant hills, even though the man be not 
aware of it, it has a soothing and restful effect. 

Do not whitewash the ceiling of the finishing room. 
It may save a few cents in insurance premiums, but in 
others ways it will cost as many dollars before one is 
through with it, especially if the varnish room ceiling 
is whitewashed. Some insurance companies urge this 
whitewashing upon manufacturers, but these people 
understand insurance much better than finishing. Some 
claim to have a formula for making whitewash that 
will not peel off. I have seen this formula used both 
with the brush and the spray pump and it peeled off. 
I have met a good many manufacturers who were in- 
duced to whitewash the ceilings of their varnishing 



WHITEWASH 
UNDESIRABLE 
IN FINISHING 
ROOM. 



22 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



CHIPPING 

OF WHITEWASH 

FLAKES HURTS 

FINISH. 



rooms along with the other parts of the factory, but 
I have never met one such v^^ho did not repent it. White- 
wash is different than paint. The liquid in paint is 
the binder. It is this binder that enters the pores of 
the wood, works itself around the fibers and takes a 
firm hold. It clings to both the pigment in the paint 
and the fibers of the wood and binds the two together. 

Not so with whitewash. Water is the liquid here 
present and is used to liquify the whole so that it will 
be spread out. Or perhaps we should say that the 
water is the medium by which the whitewash is con- 
veyed to the wood. Part of it penetrates the wood and 
part evaporates, but it has no binding qualities. The 
remaining substance in the whitewash, lime and other 
ingredients, is too heavy to penetrate far enough into 
the wood to get a firm hold. The constant changing 
temperature to which the ceiling of the upper story 
of every factory is subjected results in the extremes of 
expansion and contraction, and the whitewash, being 
brittle when dry, cracks and as its hold on the wood is 
not very firm it falls oflf. Any finisher can tell you 
what this means to freshly varnished stock, and even 
to the stock that is dry. 

If something must be done to the ceiling of the 
varnish room to render it more fireproof, put on an oil 
paint. If an inexpensive pigment is used the cost of 
this need not be high ; but in any event the first and 
last cost will not be as high as the ultimate cost of 
whitewash. 

Now and then someone raises the question of light 
in the finishing room and its effect upon the drying 
of finish. There are some finishers who will contend 
that light is just as essential as air to proper drying, 
and that varnish will dry faster in a well lighted room 
during daylight than it will at night. Others take a 
diflferent view of this matter and insist that the drying 
out of varnish and other finishing materials is purely 
a matter of temperature and air circulation and that 
the light has nothing to do with it. 

There is room for argument on this question, per- 
haps, but there are other points about light in the fin- 
ishing room well enough established to require but 



PLANNING THE FINISHING ROOM 23 

little argument. One of these is that good daylight is 
essential in staining if one would maintain uniformity 
in stain shades, or stain with any degree of exactness 
whatever shade is wanted. 

The ideal light for this kind of work is the same 
as the ideal light for the artist — light coming from 
the north side so that it will remain practically uniform 
and not vary materially with the passing of the sun as 
when the light is received from any of the other three 
sides. Another thing we know is that sunlight shining 
directly on either unfinished or finished woodwork has 
a tendency to bleach out and deaden colors. Therefore 
the direct rays of the sun should be avoided if one would 
get and keep the right kind of live color tone in finished 
work. 

To keep finished work fresh, or even prepared wood- 
work before the finish is applied, it should be stored in 
a dark place, and especially protected from sunlight. 
From all this we may safely argue that light is an ex- 
cellent thing in the finishing room, as it enables one 
to judge stain shades better, and also makes for greater 
skill and more satisfactory results in spreading var- 
nish and other finishing coats. Also it will perhaps be 
accepted without argument that daylight is much better 
for this kind of work than artificial light. The electric 
light firms are making wonderful progress, however, 
in artificial light, and may soon be able to furnish some- 
thing practically as good as daylight. They are not 
likely to furnish anything better. 

So the ideal finishing room is one that is well 
lighted, that is well provided for receiving daylight, 
preferably from the north side. When it comes to dry- 
ing, either in the finishing room, or in any specially 
provided drying room, some actual value of light will 
have to be demonstrated before it will receive much 
consideration, and the main factors to provide for are 
temperature, air, circulation and a conditioning of the 
air so that it will carry the same percentage of mois- 
ture all the time. 

Every finishing room should be equipped with the 
facilities for heating water. The best way to do this 
is by the use of a vat with a steam coil in the bottom. 



DIRECT RAYS 
OF SUN TO 
BE AVOIDED. 



24 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



Where water is to be used for dissolving stains it is 
not advisable to turn the steam into the water because 
of the possible danger from boiler compounds. Where 
chemical compounds are used the only safe way is the 
coil with the return pipe. 

Where chemical compounds are not used, or the 
water is to be used for cleaning, heating, etc., the 
steam may be turned directly into the water. A good 
apparatus for thus heating water may be made by 
HOT WATER bringing the steam pipe into the finishing room at a 
INCONSTANT point most convenient for heating the water. If the 
NEED, pipe enters through the floor proceed as follows : Place 

a valve for regulating the steam at a convenient height 
from the floor. Into the top end of the valve insert a 
pipe about a foot long. On the end of this pipe place 
an elbow, screwing it on tightly. Into the open end 
of this elbow insert another pipe about 10 inches long; 
screw this up tightly also. Place an elbow on the free 
end of this pipe, giving it a hold of six or eight threads. 
This elbow must not be tight. Insert into the open end 
of this elbow a pipe 15 or 20 inches long. The loose 
elbow on the end of this pipe will enable one to raise 
the pipe so that a pail of water may be placed beneath ; 
then the end of the pipe is lowered into the water and 
the steam turned on. By this method a pail of water 
can be heated to the boiling point in a few seconds. 



CHAPTER II 

SYSTEM FOR THE FINISHING ROOM 

THE foreman finisher of today, while he may not 
be confronted with so great a variety of colors, 
among them fumed oak, weathered oak, mahog- 
any, etc., realizes the necessity for different interpre- 
tations of these colors. The conception which the 
various manufacturers have of one color necessitates 
the varying of these particular formulas so as to match 
the shade adopted by some other maker. It is, there- 
fore, necessary that the foreman finisher be equipped 
with such apparatus as will enable him to do his match- 
ing in a methodical manner. 

To establish a rule by which all of these matches 
may be made will be of great benefit to him if this 
course is pursued. He should keep a record of each 
matching, either in a book or, better, a little card value of 
index, carefully filed away, to correspond with the records of 
numbering given the different matchings. He should patchings. 
have, in addition, a board sample of the shade produced 
by the formula for matching the same number. When 
an order is received, accompanied by a sample board, 
he selects from his stock of samples the one matching 
most nearly the one received, turns to the corresponding 
formula and builds upon it or modifies it so as to match 
the sample received from his correspondent. This, 
again, is given a number and in a short period of tiiTie 
he has an archive of information which will not only 
give him record of the goods used, the percentages, 
etc., in each combination, but also should give him a 
complete record of the source from which he obtained 
the various constituents of each formula. 

A good pair of scales, sensitive from a grain to two 
ounces, a mortar and pestle, graduates, stirring rods, a 
set of small brushes kept exclusively for this purpose, 
a complete set of board panels, showing the various 
flakes and grades of wood so that when a sample 
comes in made on a flaky piece of wood it can be 



2G 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



EQUIPMENT 
OF FINISHING 
ROOM. 



THE QUESTION 
OF WEIGHTS. 



matched on the piece of wood which corresponds to 
the sample, should be at hand. A set of colors made 
up of the primaries, the necessary chemicals which are 
used in the finishing room, such as bichromate of pot- 
ash, caustic potash, the acids for setting the colors, is 
also necessary. Where oil stains are employed, the 
necessary solvents, such as benzole, acetone, wood alco- 
hol, should be carried. There also should be a water 
bath, with some suitable porcelain-lined or granite 
ware dishes. It is not commonly known that oil soluble 
colors can be dissolved quickly in heated benzole, tur- 
pentine or oils and that a more uniform result is 
obtained by making the solution of these colors by the 
use of the water bath. It is taken for granted, of 
course, that this water bath will be steam heated. 

Unfortunately, we have in this country three kinds 
of weights, of which there is practically but one unit: 
The Troy weight, with its twelve ounces to the pound ; 
the apothecaries' weight, with the same number of 
ounces to the pound but not the same number of grains, 
and the avoirdupois weight, with sixteen ounces to the 
pound. Now, while all these different weights have 
one practical unit, there is always present the possibil- 
ity of errors getting into a formula through the inter- 
changing of ounce weights, dram weights, and in mul- 
tiplying a formula to a larger working quantity. The 
balance, or scale, shown in the accompanying cut as 
No. 8, therefore is preferable. There also should be a 
set of weights having 480 grains to the ounce. To 
avoid any possibility of misconception, before we go 
any farther, I suggest that the reader provide himself 
with any little pocket diary in which can be found the 
different weights used in the various kinds of weights. 
Let each one also establish for himself a rule for his 
formula. 

Now, here you will have to follow me closely. We 
are going to use both dry and liquid measures. The 
smallest graduate that you may use will be a minim 
graduate, and will be used only for very small amounts. 
A minim is the equivalent of one drop of liquid, sixty 
of which make a dram. The next size graduate will be 
either an ounce or four ounces. Graduated in drams. 



SYSTEM FOR THE FINISHING ROOM 



27 



i. e., if a one-ounce graduate, the markings should be 
in drams, eight drams making an ounce. If a four- 
ounce graduate, the markings should be for the first 
ounce in drams and the balance up to four ounces ir 
quarter and half ounces. The next graduate should be 
either of pint or quart capacity, graduated from one 
to four ounces. With a set of graduates as described 
above, one is able to handle any problem that may arise. 
Thus it will be seen that minim graduate rep- 
resents 1 drop, 60 minims 1 dram, 8 drams 1 ounce, 
16 ounces 1 pint, 2 pints 1 quart, and 4 quarts 1 gallon, equipment. 
As this is the liquid measure which we employ, I 
recommend, to avoid confusion, a set of weights to 
use in weighing stains, etc., made up as follows : 



LABORATORY 



GRAIN WEIGHTS 

1, 2, 3, 5 and 10 20 grains equal 1 scruple 

SCRUPLE WEIGHTS 

1 and 2 3 scruples equal 1 dram 

DRAM WEIGHTS 
1, 2, 3 and 4 8 drams equal 1 ounce 

OUNCE WEIGHTS 

1/4, 1, 2 and 4 16 ounces equal 1 pound 





MEASURING AND MIXING JUG 



MINIM GRADUATE 



VARIATION 
IN WEIGHTS. 



28 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

It will be seen that the foregoing is a conclomera- 
tion of the three different kinds of weights, but that 
it conforms with the liquid measure commonly used, 
inasmuch as it makes 16 ounces to the pound ; it differs 
from the apothecaries' weight, and inasmuch as it uses 
480 grains to the ounce it differs from the avoirdupois 
weight. In purchasing scales you will always find that 
they are accompanied with grain weights up to two 
drams. Above that they will have ounce weights. But 
these ounce weights have 437 V2 grains to the ounce. 
While this slight difference might not be noticed in 
some formulas, in others when 
formulas are multiplied to make 
a larger quantity, the discrep- 
ancy will absolutely change the 
shade of the stain which it is 
attempted to make. This is why 
I recommend a balance scale so 
that the weights desired can be 
placed on the opposite pan. It 
will take but a short time to 
familiarize oneself with these 
units, and when the units that 
establish the formula are used funnel 

in the entire work, the multiple of a formula will be 
correct. Any of the readers who now have scales and 
wish to employ the above suggestions, can easily test 
out their scales by beginning with the grains and multi- 
plying up until they have established a unit of 480 
grains, then making comparison with their ounce 
weights when it will probably be found that these show 
but 437 grains. It should then be an easy matter to 
either weight these weights with more lead or to make 
some weights out of lead pipe and mark them. For 
example: 1 ounce, 480 grains. 

The mortar and pestle is positively the handiest 
thing for thoroughly mixing and reducing to a fine 
powder the various colors and chemicals employed. For 
example, in making up a formula, I will say, of 20 
grains of black, some orange and bichromate of potash, 
these chemicals can be weighed out, rubbed up finely 
in the moHar and half of the quantity of water added 





SYSTEM FOR THE FINISHING ROOM 29 

and thoroughly stirred. It will be found that nearly- 
all of the color has been dissolved, but that there is 

sufficient color left in the 
bottom of the mortar which 
might change the color. 
Now you can readily see 
what it would do to a for- 
mula, the amount of which 
has been many times in- 
creased but not all dis- how to use 
solved. Therefore, after apparatus. 
pouring off the first water, 
use a little more water to 
stir the balance of the color 

MORTAR AND PESTLE ^^ ^he mortar and continue 

to add small portions of 
water until all of the color is dissolved. You will then 
be certain that all the color has been dissolved. In 
the cuts I have shown the handiest and most useful 
styles of graduates. As these graduates are used for 
either water, spirit or oily liquids, get the graduates 
made in the larger sizes which have a flat bottom with 
the markings on the outside. These are easily kept 
clean and clean dishes are absolutely necessary in the 
experimental work in the finishing room, as it takes 
but a small amount of color sometimes to ruin a 
formula. 

In some factories they make their own fillers, or 
rather, they color their own fillers, and in others they 
have ready-made fillers. Every finisher knows that a 
certain amount of his results depend upon the filler 
used. In matching up a piece of wood or establishing 
a formula, it is just as necessary to know what filler 
to use as it is to know the composition of or the stain 
used. The filler which is at hand may not be dark 
enough and, therefore, the compounder should have at 
his disposal the few colors ground in oil which are 
used in color filler, such as black, browns, rose pink 
and the siennas. Then in the changing of a filler, or 
the coloring of one, he can weigh out his colors, and 
thereafter have no trouble in producing the same 
shade of filler. 



RESULTS 
DEPEND ON 
FILLER USED. 



30 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



HOW TO USE 
CARD REFER- 
ENCE IN 
STAINING. 



Colors ground in oil can be weighed out just as 
easily as dry colors. For this initial work you can take 
two pieces of glass, evenly balanced, and put your paste 
color on this glass. Brush it clean with the liquid used 
in thinning the filler. 

To further illustrate my idea of how a card ref- 
erence should be made, let me introduce here: 

WATER STAIN EXPERIMENT CARD NO. 506 

Match for I. C. PROGRESS & CO.'S Mahogany, on Birch. Water Stain 



Water 


Scarlet 


Black 


Oranga 


Bichromate 

of 

Potash 


Filler 


1 Pint 


1 dram 
2 scruples 


30 grs. 
30 grs. 
20 grs. 


2 scrupl^-s 
1 scruple 


1 dram 


Marietta's 

Standard 

Shad' 


Total in 
grains 


100 


80 


60 


60 




To make a 

gallon 

multiply 

by 8, there 

l)--ing8pint.s 

to the gallon 


800 


C40 


480 


480 


Reduce to 

the largest 

units 




1 oz. 
5 drams 
1 scruple 


1 oz. 
2 drams 
2 serupl s 


1 oz. 


1 oz. 





Thus, the formula for matching I. C. Progress & 
Co.'s mahogany on birch as given above and fully inter- 
preted reads: To 1 gallon of water add 1 ounce, 5 
drams, 1 scruple of scarlet ; 1 ounce, 2 drams, 2 scruples 
of black; 1 ounce of orange, 1 ounce of bichromate of 
potash. Fill with Marietta Co.'s mahogany standard 
filler. 

From the foregoing example we find that the first 
test was made as shown in the first line of quantities 
used. That is, the operater used 1 dram of scarlet, 
30 grains of black, 2 scruples of orange and 1 dram of 
bichromate of potash. It is evident that there was not 
sufl^cient strength, so the next addition was 2 scruples 
of scarlet, 30 grains of black and 1 scrunle of orange. 
This did not produce the desired result. The third exper- 
iment, or addition, produced the result by the addi- 
tion of 20 grains of black. This, then, gave a pint of 
stain which would do the work. A pint being an eighth 
of a gallon, the diflferent amounts used were added up 
in grains, then reduced back to the largest units of 



SYSTEM FOR THE FINISHING ROOM 



31 



the M'eights employed by the scale at hand. The totals 
give the correct amount for a gallon of stain. It is then 
an easy matter to double or increase the amount to any 
number of gallons desired. The card becomes at once 
a record and when filed away numerically with the 
sample of wood received, the sample will show the re- 
sult from the stain made. This makes an additional 
record which at any time can be called for to assist in 
future experiments. Should there be another order 
taken in where the shade varies little, you have a basis 
to work upon. These experiments sometimes will take 
from 10 to 20 additions of the various colors, but after 
a pint of water is used for dissolving more than a half, 
or possibly three-quarters of an ounce, it is recom- 
mended that you destroy the chart and begin over again 
as in that case the water carries too much stain and is 
liable to become muddy. Again, care must be taken in 
the selection of colors. It must be remembered that 
acid colors and basic colors do not harmonize. A pre- 
cipitate is thrown out which is absolutely useless and a 
waste of color material. 

The foregoing example may be employed in the 
making of oil stains, but owning to the fact that oil 
colors do not dissolve as readily, especially if they be 
of the lumpy kind, unless they be heated on a water 
bath, the results are not so easy or sure. The prep- 
aration of a concentrated solution of the colors usually 
employed for making oil stains is very handy. For 
instance, the finisher of experience knows what colors 
are usually employed for making the various oil stains. 
Consequently he can make up a certain quantity of a 
very strong solution of the colors, the strength of which 
is known to him. He can then proceed very much as 
in the previous example, or according to the following, 
the chart of which is shown below: 

OIL STAIN EXPERIMENT CARD NO. 569 

Match for sample hoard frorn A. S. Mufllen Company "OLD OAK." 



BenzoH 


Oil Red 


Oil Yfllow 


Oil Black 


Acetone 


H pint 

Yi pint 
1 pint 


1 ounce 
H ounce 

V2 ounce 


2 ounces 
Ji ounce 
J5 ounce 


3 ounces 
1 ounce 


1 ounce 
1 ounce 


2 pints 2 ounces 


IVi ounces 


4 ounces 


2 ounces 



CARD IS A ■ 
RECORD 
FOR FUTURE 
EXPERIMENTS. 



RECORD CARD 
FOR OIL 
STAINS. 



CARRYING 
OUT CHART. 



32 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

The chart is then carried out by multiplying the 
amounts with whatever factor is desired to produce 
the quantity of stain required. As there are eight 
pints to the gallon, in order to make the above into a 
gallon quantity we would multiply naturally by four. 
Multiplying the entire amounts by this figure would 
give us a total of eight pints of benzole, eight ounces 
of oil red solution, 10 ounces of oil yellow solution, 16 
ounces of oil black solution and eight ounces of acetone, 
which the operator has found to produce an oil stain, 
which will match the sample board in question. 
My readers will notice that this formula will produce 
one and one-quarter gallons of stain. For all prac- 
tical purposes this slight increase will not matter, but 
if that quantity should be too large, it is an easy mat- 
ter to reach the factor. 

The adoption of a system of this kind in any fin- 
ishing department where mixing of colors takes place. 




NO. 8 SCALE 



is far ahead of the old style, which was taking a little of 
this and a little of that, and then some more of this, 
without keeping or having at hand a record of where 
the stock came from, and with nothing but memory 
to rely upon. A finisher who once starts a system 
of this kind will eventually become possessed of a val- 
uable lot of information. The more of these charts 
he has, the more readily he can match a special order. 



ING ESSENTIAL 
IN GOOD 
FURNITURE. 



CHAPTER III 

THE STAINING AND COLORING OF WOODS 

THE first efforts at staining or coloring woods were 
primarily undertaken to embellish them. Our 
native woods were colored in order to give them 
the same shade as those of the tropical woods, which ^^'^ ^^ stain- 
are so much more expensive, and also to color cabinet 
woods, producing deeper shades and to give them the 
appearance of age. 

Of late years, all sorts of colors and shades have 
been produced. Many of the colors have nothing in 
common with those of the natural woods, such as the 
green, olive, gray and blue tones, these especially being 
absolutely foreign colors. Stained woods are today 
very popular, the buying public demanding strong col- 
ors, so that the art of producing these colors is becom- 
ing more and more a requisite in the building of fur- 
niture. 

The literature which is offered seems to be a com- 
pilation of traditional information, each succeeding 
effort containing parts of some previous publication, 
with a few additions. In applying the word Stains to 
the furniture industry, it can be classified as covering 
all the different processes which are employed in the 
finishing room and which tend to change color, to 
produce shades or match woods. No matter what 
method is employed in finishing, it is called staining, 
with the one exception, which is fuming. But the stain- 
ing methods must be subdivided so that, when aft- 
erward referred to, they will be recognized. 

Under the head of Sanding, some details and re- 
quirements for successful treatment are given. That 
they may not be overlooked, let me briefly refer to a 
few essential things. These are the preparation of the 
wood by sanding, and in some cases, by sponging and 
sanding afterward, for it should be remembered that 
some of the woods must be sponged and sanded down 
again before the stain coat is applied. 



34 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



The production of stained woods, however, de- 
mands that, as much as possible, the characteristic 
texture and growth of the wood should be absolutely 
retained. Not only should they be retained, but the 
stain should, if possible, bring out the beauties of the 
wood. All materials employed in the production of 
stains, anilines, dyes and chemicals as well, should be 
absolutely soluble in water, or if used in spirits or oil 
vehicles should be equally soluble, so that they will pen- 
sTAiN SHOULD etrate as much as possible into the wood and carry with 
ENHANCE them their color value without destroying the ntural 

WOOD'S BEAUTY, appearance of the wood. Therein the well stained wood 
has an advantage over a wood stained with insoluble 
color materials, as the former penetrates, and in its 
process of penetration lends its color to the fibres and 
cells of the wood, whereas the latter tends to cover, 
and thus destroy the natural appearance. 

Of a stained wood, we demand, from the fact that 
the furniture is to be used indefinitely, a permanency 
that will not be affected by either light or air. Yet 
these two requisites are not the only ones that are 
essential in making a good stain. There are a good 
many dyestuffs and chemicals which are fast to light, 
but they are not adapted for wood stains. A good 
wood stain, one that will be fast to light, and perma- 
nent to exposure to air, must have the necessary pen- 
etrating quality so that when spread upon the wood 
will pentrate the fibres and pores alike, tending to 
REQUISITES leave an evenly colored surface. The application must 
OF A GOOD be simple, the results certain and, as a rule must not 

STAIN. be exorbitant in price. 

The various anilines, vegetable color stuff and chem- 
icals used in the production of stains have a varied 
qualification as to their permanency when made up as 
stains. We have a good many anilines whose colors 
are most beautiful, and from which every conceivable 
shade can be produced, but unfortunately within 24 
hours after their application they begin to fade. 
Another series of anilines permits the exposure of 
months, withstanding all without a particle of change. 
As a rule, coal tar colors are far in advance in their 
qualifications as stain material in preference to veg- 



THE STAINING AND COLORING OF WOODS 35 

etable products. It is an easy matter to produce any 
shade of stain out of the two thousand available aniline 
colors. But it takes an intimate knowledge to ascer- 
tain which of these colors is adapted for use in the 
coloring of woods. 

The demand for these special colors has so increased 
in late years, that the consumer is comparatively safe 
in ordering supplies if it is known by the supply house 
for what purpose the colors are to be employed. With- 
out discussing here the relative values of oil stains and 
spirit stains, suffice it to say that the general rule is, 
from the very nature of production, neither spirit 
stains, nor oil stains, can be said to be absolutely per- 
manent. But their permanency can be greatly aug- 
mented by the after treatment of the wood, such as 
covering or coating it with an air-tight coat such as 
shellac or varnish, thus protecting it from the oxidiz- 
ing effect of the atmosphere. 

For the artisan, it is well to know that, as a rule, 
a color that is absolutely soluble in water, as well as 
in alcohol, is not fast to light. Where it becomes abso- 
lutely necessary to produce shades by the employment 
of colors of unknown permanency, it is far better to 
apply each coat separately. To be explicit, let us sup- 
pose we wish to use a red and a black, but the effect 
of the two colors mixed is unknown to us. Then 
apply one color first, and when thoroughly dry, apply 
the second color. Thus the uncertainty of the mixture 
is avoided, but the result on the wood is obtained. In 
the event of producing stain out of coal tar dyes and 
chemicals, it is well to remember that it is not safe to 
go beyond two ounces of chemical salts to the gallon of 
water. There are instances, however, where a quantity 
as high as four ounces of chemical material can be dis- 
solved in a gallon of water. This depends largely upon 
the amount of water for crystallization present in the 
chemical. 

In the application of vegetable dyes, one should 
always thoroughly understand the mordants that are to 
be used in the making of permanent colors when em- 
ploying this material. As a matter of fact, vegetable 
colors should be obsolete, from the fact that their very 



PERMANENCY 
AND FASTNESS 
OP A STAIN. 



;}6 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



KNOWLEDGE 
OF MORDANTS 
NECESSARY. 



nature does not spell uniformity. For it must be known 
that no two plant lives produce results identical. There 
is always a discrepancy in the actual percentage of 
color value present in a given weight of material. While 
the few that are still popular, such as log wood, fustic, 
catechu, can be purchased in extract form, and thus 
partially eliminating the uncertainty, there is never- 
theless, a percentage of uncertainty, which . although 
small would manifest itself in the results. And al- 
though the popular mordants would be employed, 
assuring the permanency of the resultant color, the 
shade might vary. 

Then, too, standardizing the stains made from veg- 
etable dyestuff would exact an amount of labor the 
expense of which is not warranted in the face of the 
fact that an aniline of absolute permanency, producing 
identical color values, can be purchased at reasonable 
figures. Therefore it is not considered timely to recom- 
mend continuance of materials prone to uncertainties. 

While mineral colors, as far as permanency is con- 
cerned, are recognized superior to any stain material, 
from the very fact that they do not change their physi- 
cal condition while being applied to wood, yet they 
must not be considered a stain. Their only considera- 
tions in good furniture are in their filler coats, and 
their value of giving to the filler a harmonious shade 
conforming with that of the stained wood. 

The fact that a thin coat of stain ofttimes is not 
considered permanent, whereas a stronger stain made 
of the identical material is called fast to light, needs 
consideration. For example, if we coat a square yard 
of a certain wood, employing ten grams of color mate- 
rials, and then coat another square yard using but one 
gram of color material, it will be found that after a 
given time the sunlight has produced a greater effect 
on the weaker stain. The dark coat will have lost 
possibly one-half gram of its color material, say about 
5 per cent. However, the lighter shade will have lost 
about 50 per cent, and will have the appearance of a 
faded-out surface, which will show us that in pro- 
ducing the light shades, the effect of sunlight must 
always be taken into consideration. 



THE STAINING AND COLORING OF WOODS 37 

But it must be understood that it is not the stain 
that changes the color, but it is the wood itself that has 
changed and thus affected the stain. This can be car- 
ried on further, and show conclusively the permanency 
of the stain, by taking a freshly sanded panel and ex- 
posing it 48 hours to the sunlight, applying the weaker affects 
stain, and again exposing it to the sunlight, when it the stain 
will be found that there is no perceptible change in the 
stain. This again convinces us that after the perma- 
nency of the stain is established in delicate tones, light 
effect on freshly sanded surfaces must be taken into 
consideration in the final result. 



WOOD 
CHANGING 



CHAPTER IV 

KNOWLEDGE OF WOODS NECESSARY 

ALL woods entering into the manufacture of 
pianos, furniture and other high class commodi- 
ties intended to receive a clear and durable finish ^^^^ ^^sr 
should be thoroughly seasoned and well dried. We are 
living in a fast age. The rapidity with which the 
monarch of the forest is converted into the beautiful 
article for the home is but characteristic of the times, 
and calls loudly for a care that in some measure at least 
will compensate for the haste in the preparation of the 
wood for the finish. 

Until quite recently both in England and Europe, 
and even in this country, it was customary to allow 
wood to stand several years between the time it was 
cut from the tree and the time of manufacturing it 
into household articles, in order that it might become 
thoroughly cured. But in this age of action nxuch 
lumber is used in the manufacture of goods that has 
been cut but a few months at the most. 
. Wood intended for furniture, pianos, etc., that has 
not been thoroughly seasoned in the open air should 
be thoroughly kiln-dried a considerable time in advance 
of being made up. This is of advantage to any wood 
whether thoroughly seasoned or not. But it is im- 
perative with wood that has been rushed from the tree 
to the dry-kiln. If poorly seasoned wood is hastened 
from the dry-kiln into the workshop it is very easily 
affected by atmospheric changes, and constant expan- 
sion and contraction result from a continually varying 
temperature. On the surface of such wood a lasting 
finish need not be expected. 

When the highly polished, mirror-like surface grows 
dim before its time, either the method or the material 
used in finishing is usually held accountable, and all 
eyes are turned toward and centered on the finishing 
room as the source of the trouble. A careful examina- 
tion of the finish reveals the fact that the surface of 



40 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



UNEVENNESS 
OF FINISH 
TROUBLESOME. 



the varnish is gradually growing uneven, and this un- 
evenness is the cause of the dimness. But what is the 
cause of the unevenness, is the question demanding an 
answer. 

In many finishing rooms unevenness of finish has 
been for years, and is today, one of the unsolved mys- 
teries. 

A microscopic unevenness will adversely affect a 
high polish. If wood has not been properly dried, no 
matter how well the pores may have been filled, or how 
carefully the varnish may have been rubbed and pol- 
ished, there is certain to result, in consequence of ex- 
pansion and contraction, an unevenness sufficient to 
detract from the appearance of the finish soon after the 
work is done. And this trouble may continue indefi- 
nitely without its cause being ascertained, because men 
persist in looking for the cause of trouble in the im- 
mediate vicinity where the trouble is discovered. It is 
here that science enters and enables the finished' with 
a well trained mind to stand out from among his fellows 
and clear the path of obstacles that are immovable and 
insurmountable to the average man. 



CHAPTER V 

PREPARATION OF WOOD BEFORE FINISHING 

WHILE it is generally understood that all wood 
should be thoroughly dried before it is fin- 
ished, this really means that it should be thor- 
oughly seasoned before it is put into work at all. Un- 
questionably there was no better method than the old 
way of storing it in the rafters of the work shop for 
five or six months, where it was subjected to the cir- 
culation of the air, and was always in a dry place. 

The stacking up of lumber or boards, sometimes 
said to be done to take out the warp before the present- 
day kiln-drying, is only a step toward the preparation 
of the wood. It shortens the time in the kiln. In the 
present day of hurry and hustle, the old methods, no 
matter how meritorious, will not do, because compe- 
tion will not permit of tying up capital for so long a 
time, and, therefore, it may be said that all cabinet 
woods are prepared by drying them in the kiln. 

One would naturally suppose that this was an en- 
tirely satisfactory procedure, but it is not without diffi- 
culties, for the softer wood, when hurried too much, 
will shrink beyond normal, only to take on a certain 
amount of moisture after having been in work. To 
exemplify, take a piece of basswood, subject it to ex- 
cessive kiln-drying, and, for argument's sake, say it 
has been reduced to nine inches. You will find that it 
will increase, in a perfectly dry room, to about 91/2 
inches. If this piece of wood were immediately put in 
work, the atmospheric conditions would later cause 
trouble. The preparation of the wood, therefore, to a 
certain degree, must be in keeping with the peculiari- 
ties of the wood. 

After the wood has been thoroughly seasoned, it is 
usually cut to sizes, when it is ready for the planer; 
from the planer it goes to the sander, when it is passed 
to the various machines, preparing it for the cabinet 
room. 



OLD METHODS 
GOOD BUT TOO 
SLOW TODAY. 



42 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



FINISHING 
PROCESS IS 
COMMENCED. 



The foregoing procedure is that of the furniture 
factory, whereas the general preparation of the wood 
for the various kinds of wood-working industries is 
similar and supplied to the different industries as kiln- 
dried stock in the rough or planed. 

The stock thus prepared is ready for the cabinet 
room, where it is made up into the various pieces and 
again smoothed down before going to the finishing 
room. Large surfaces, such as table and dresser tops, 
are put through the polisher or sander machine. Sand- 
ing is employed wherever possible. When a piece is 
finally finished and thoroughly smoothed down, it is 
turned over to the finishing room. The sanding of large 
surfaces is a delicate operation, particularly so where 
veneer is employed. Here the danger of cutting through 
the surface of the veneer comes, for which there is no 
remedy except to send the piece back to the veneer room 
to have it re-veneered. This is done over the old veneer, 
as the surface has already been smoothed in the pol- 
isher or sander, Turned parts are sanded before they 
leave the lathe. 

Unusually rough parts are drawn down with a 
scraper. This, however, is only necessary when ex- 
tremely uneven joints have been made. Here the cabi- 
netmaker uses his plane or scraper. Where hand sand- 
ing is done, the cork block or, nowadays, the rubber 
block, is employed and usually garnet paper is found to 
have the preference. It will be seen that no matter 
what the work, the general preparation of the wood 
before it reaches the finishing room results in thor- 
oughly seasoned stock and, when made up, perfectly 
smooth work. 

A piece thus prepared, and particularly is this the 
case of medium and better grade work, where water 
stain is to be employed, is now sponged. This sponging 
is usually done by one man, who has a large pail of 
lukewarm water in which a small quantity of glue has 
been incorporated — not enough to act as a sizing, but 
sufficient to cause the fibers of the wood to dry stiff or 
to hold up the fuzz. After the sponging the smoothing 
process is employed. In pieces where large surfaces 
are to be smoothed down, as much as possible is done in 



PREPARATION OF WOOD BEFORE FINISHING 43 

the knock-down. By this is meant the various tops. 
Drawer fronts can then be done with machine work. 
After the entire piece has been sponged and smoothed 
it is ready for the finishing room. 

The question naturally arises, why do you sponge 
and sand when you intend to apply another solution of 
water stain? 

This accomplishes one of the main features of good 
finishing. It has opened up the pores of the wood. The 
loose fibers have been removed and this enables the 
finishers' art to enhance the beauty of the wood. First, 
it does away with the extreme amount of sanding which 
is necessary to smooth the wood after the grain has 
been raised by the sponging process which, if the stain 
were incorporated with the sponging solution, would cut 
off too much of the stain coat, and in some places, pos- 
sibly, cut through, leaving an unevenly-colored surface. 
That a considerable amount of care must be taken in 
the sanding process, especially with the softer woods, is 
generally known. But for the novice, let him take 
various kinds of woods, and he will notice that he can 
cut down into the soft parts of the wood, leaving the 
flakes of the fibrous parts protruding. That is why it is 
well to employ a fine, but high grade, sandpaper in 
smoothing the surfaces, whether before or after stain- 
ing. 

On the cheaper grades of work the sponging process 
is omitted. It means two less handlings of the article. 
On work that is to be oil stained, or spirit stained, 
sponging is also omitted ; but in either of these cases a 
thorough dusting is quite essential, if a clean bit of 
work is to be the result. 

In the general preparation of the wood in carvings, 
turned work and curves, there is no special method to 
be recommended. The turned work is sanded in the 
lathe, carvings by hand, curved work by hand or ma- 
chine, but in all cases there is end wood to be considered 
in the staining process. If it is found in work that 
is to be sponged, it is merely a case of thoroughly sand- 
ing and smoothing down before staining. No general 
precaution is necessary with a water stain, and espe- 
cially is this the case in the darker shades ; but if the 



SANDING AND 
SPONGING. 



SPONGING IS 
OMITTED ON 
SOME GRADES. 



44 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

end wood takes on the color too dark, it is merely a 
case of proportionate thinning of the water stain so 
that the increased amount of stain deposited in the 
end wood will only come up to match that on the gen- 
eral work. But in cases of oil stain, it is absolutely 
necessary to greatly reduce the strength of the stain, so 
that the end wood will not show up darker than the 
general color of the entire piece. This end wood should 
all be stained before the balance of the piece. This rule 
PRECAUTIONS equally applies to the filler. It can readily be seen that 
NECESSARY end wood would take on more stain and more filler than 
MANY TIMES. the smooth flat surface. 

These precautions are employed where the best of 
results are desired, and, unfortunately, are never con- 
sidered in the cheaper grades of furniture. Where the 
dipping processes are employed these precautions are 
simply out of question. Built-up stock and veneers are 
all sponged and treated like solid woods where water 
stains are employed. It would surprise any one to know 
how small a quantity of wood is taken off in the spong- 
ing process. That is why we are able to sponge the 
veneer parts in the same manner that we do solid wood. 
If this were not possible, the results would not be uni- 
form. It has been stated that the sponging method is 
employed only where water stains are used. While this 
is general, there are exceptional cases where the wood 
is sponged in order to open the pores, such as in making 
fumed oak by the use of an oil stain, or where some of 
the fancy finishes are to be made, and the pores to be 
later filled with a colored filler. 

In these cases, the wood is sponged, and in order 
to more readily open the pores, a small amount of alkali 
is added and then, when dry and sanded, the pores are 
still further opened up by the use of a picking brush. 
After the sanding has been completed, the work is 
thoroughly cleaned off before applying the stain and 
before applying the filler. This is also necessary in 
cases where precaution is necessary to keep the filler 
from settling, from the fact that the oil penetrates the 
wood, leaving the dry filler to still further settle in the 
pores only to be followed by all the subsequent coats 
in the finishing process. 



THE DANGER 



PREPARATION OF WOOD BEFORE FINISHING 45 

The difficulty that affects the finishing room is usu- 
ally that which is termed "cutting through." After 
the wood is sponged, it is put through the polisher, 
which is a machine usually supplied with No. 1 down 
to No. 00 paper. The operator of this machine has the 
most responsible sanding position. He must smooth 
the piece without cutting through the sponged part. 
The great danger is in using too coarse paper, and then 
cutting through part of the wood which has been 
affected by the sponging operation. Thus he entirely 
eliminates the sponge part, and while bringing a through " 
smooth piece to the finisher, causes the difficulty which 
cannot be recognized until it has passed through the 
cabinet room and is ready to receive its final treatment. 

The foreman finisher unsuspectingly puts the piece 
through the staining process, only to find that the color 
has not taken evenly. The particular part which was 
cut through did not take the stain as evenly or as deeply 
as the rest of the piece. Then and there the difficulty 
begins. It means "doctoring," with doubtful results. 
When the finishing department thoroughly understands 
its requirements, it should be consulted in the matter 
of purchasing sanding machines. 

Usually the builder of such machines informs him- 
self of the requirements and the results necessary to 
be obtained with the machine before he puts it on the 
market. In these days, when time is money, when 
wood is getting scarcer, when the finishes are of a 
much higher grade than they used to be, the sanding 
operation is one that must not be overlooked. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD SANDING 

BEFORE staining woods, it is absolutely necessary 
that every part of the piece has been thoroughly 
sanded. 

As a rule, the machine sanding, when done by ex- 
perienced operators, needs little attention; but the 
necessity of the sanding operation, as a whole, is recog- 
nized by the foreman finisher as absolutely essential to 
good finishing results. Untold troubles and difficulties 
may arise from too much or too little sanding. The fin- 
isher must insist that sanding be done with the grain : 
First, with the coarser sandpapers until toward the 
finishing of the sanding operation it is smoothed with 
the finest paper. 

An experienced hand will never attempt to go cross- 
wise of the grain. The use of the sanding block, which 
is usually made of a block of wood three by five inches, 
to which is glued an absolutely square piece of cork, is 
common. About this is placed the paper that is used. 
It might be well to state that sandpaper should not be 
torn. Place it face down, cut the paper side, and then 
break over an edge. In this way absolutely even work 
can be produced by regular strokes and uniform pres- 
sure. 

I will not enter into the merits of the various sand- 
papers on the market, for every operator has a choice, 
and once he is accustomed to the results he obtains, it 
matters little what brand of paper is employed, as long 
as a satisfactory surface is produced. A method em- 
ployed which takes the place of sponging the wood be- 
fore staining is the sanding, or rather smoothing with 
wet pumice stone. This method is .not popular in this 
country, but is used in Europe quite extensively. It is 
claimed that better results are obtained by its use, and 
one operation eliminated. The wood is moistened with 
sponges to raise the pores, and then rubbed smooth 
with pumice stone and by the use of the sanding block. 



GOOD SANDING 

ESSENTIAL TO 
GOOD FINISH. 



REDUCING THE 
SANDING TO 
A MINIMUM. 



48 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

For this process it is claimed that the water stain, 
described later, will penetrate the wood better without 
raising the grain so that the sanding or smoothing 
after the application of the stain is reduced to a mini- 
mum. In this country, the sanders deliver the piece 
supposedly completely sanded to the finisher. For many 
of the stains it is sponged, and quite thoroughly at 
that, and again sanded before the stain is applied. The 
difference seems to be in the fact that the cutting of 
the moistened surface with pumice stone to absolute 
smoothness has a different effect than sponging, let- 
ting it dry and then sanding. 

One of the text books published in Leipzig, Ger- 
many, tells us: "Wood is in all probability the most 
difficult material on which to produce an absolutely 
even surface. The structure of the same is so varied ; 
beside the soft, fleshy part are the bone-hard fibers 
representing the years, or age of the tree. In oaks 
which are quartersawed we call them the flake. In some 
woods the structure is tough, hard and pithy ; in others, 
short and stocky fibers. Therefore, to sand woods 
even, and so that the flakes and soft parts are equally 
affected by the process, the soft parts should not be 
crushed down or pressed together, so that they will not 
swell up later, the hard parts not to protrude by the 
sanding process. In other words, so that there will be 
no depressions and elevations, but that the surface will 
be absolutely even. The following requisites are specific 
of a good sanding or smoothing material: First, it 
must be sufficiently hard and sharp so as to attack the 
hard parts of the wood and, at the same time, to cut the 
soft parts of the wood rather than to press them to- 
gether. Second, it must be produced chemically so that 
the wood will not knot itself, but will powder up and 
be readily removed with a duster." 

We see that sandpaper figures extensively in the 
manipulations which go to make the finished product. 
First, the raw wood is smoothed, and so is each con- 
secutive coat until the last one, which is usually rubbed. 
After sponging, staining, shellacing and filling, it is 
sanded. Different degrees of sanding, diflferent de- 
grees of fineness of the sandpaper, all of which must 



THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD SANDING 49 

be thoroughly understood by the foreman finisher, are 
applied. He must understand how to break in his men. 
A new hand will do more harm than good. In these 
days of finishes of woods, such as Circassion, where 
there is really little coating, scratches or cuts by negli- 
gent sanding loom up like a boil on a man's nose. 

Sandpaper, used on finish, must be kept moist. Old 
finishers usually split their paper and then moisten the 
back. This is so that the paper will give way under 
pressure rather than to press in on the soft part of the 
wood. An experienced sander will have at hand a 
sponge with which he moistens his paper as he uses it. 
Today you can purchase sandpaper that is coated on 
both sides, and on which a split is started so that when 
you come to use it, it is merely necessary to pull it 
apart. 

There are various makes of sandpaper, some have 
preference in one factory, and some in another. The 
main thing is to know what degree of coarseness or 
fineness to use, and then to see that the men use it 
properly. No matter what woods are used, the surfac? 
cannot be prepared too carefully. As stated before, 
wnether sanding is done by machine or whether it is 
done by hand, it must never cut through th sponged 
part of the wood. That part which had been raised by 
the moisture should only be sanded sufficiently to give 
it absolute smoothness. After staining (of course, we 
mean water staining, as spirit or oil stains will not 
raise the grain) , it is only necessary to cut off the little 
fibers or nap that may protrude. Some finishers, par- 
ticularly where the cheaper grades of furniture are 
made, prefer to put on a coat of stain without sponging, 
usually relying on their results by putting on a heavier 
coat of stain or a darker coat and sanding lightly after- 
ward. They even fill the wood without sanding, put on 
the shellac and cut the protruding fibers which are 
' -ifened by the ^hellac by giving it a light coat of sand. 
I'he only danger of this operation is that these little 
fibers will show ud the raw color and will not permit 
a permanent finish, acting as conductors of air, espe- 
cially where wax finishes are used. 

Shellac coats and varnish coats are, of course, hand 



MUST HAVE 
KNOWLEDGE 
OF SANDPAPER. 



50 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



SANDING FOR 
UNIFORMITY 
OF RESULTS. 



sanded, No. and No. 00 paper being used. It is im- 
possible to lay down an ironclad rule for the operation. 
Enough has been said to show the reader the points to 
be safeguarded, but the factory that wants good fin- 
ishing results must insist upon the fulfillment of the 
essentials conducive to good results in the finishing 
room. 

Uniformity in sanding is essential, and to properly 
convey this to the finisher, the following experiment is 
suggested : Plane a piece of wood, making a smooth 
surface. Sand one surface with No. GO sandpaper and 
the other with No. 14 sandpaper, and stain both sur- 
faces. This will exemplify in a strong manner what it 
means to the finishing department if uniformity in 
sanding is not insisted upon. The planed part of the 
sandpaper will be darker and that sanded with the 
board will be light in color. That sanded with the fine 
coarse paper will be very much darker, and the coarse 
one will give a muddy finish. 

Another precaution is the sandpapering between 
each application of finishing material. For instance, 
after the filler has been applied, there are likely to be 
spots where the filler has taken darker, due to a little 
roughness generally caused by insufficient sanding in 
the cabinet or machine room, which may not have been 
noticed until the filler showed them up, and which, in 
the finished product, would show up a blotchy bit of 
work. It is a fact that it is diflficult to clean up filler, or 
wipe it oflf, on the so-called "skipped" places, and in 
consequence thereof a bit of judicious sanding will 
greatly help the final result. 

Varnish surfaces may be sanded without creating 
the least bit of dust, if the sandpaper is wet with oil 
before it is used. For this purpose a shallow dish 
should be procured and partly filled with oil. The sandy 
side of the paper should be wet with the oil, after 
which the paper is used just as in dry sandpaper. After 
using the sandpaper for awhile, it will become clogged, 
but may be cleaned to a large extent by brushing it out 
with a wet brush, after which it should be dipped into 
the oil again. Use a substitute turpentine or a mineral 
oil. Sandpapering with oil does not retard the work ; 



THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD SANDING 51 

on the other hand, it seems to help it. For some kinds 
of varnish sanding, steel wool is recommended as eco- 
nomical and labor saving, but experience has shown 
that it is dangerous to the finish. 

That there should be a great many details in the 
manufacture of sandpaper seems, at first thought, 
rather remarkable ; but when one stops to consider the 
large variety of material which goes to make paper, the 
different ways of making it, the innumerable sub- 
stances which are used in glue, and the wide range in 
their prices, not to consider the various factory meth- 
ods, it is not strange. If the different grades of paper 
were limited to only ten, and the glue to ten, we would 
have one hundred possible combinations without even 
considering the sand, grading or care in manufacture. 

The process of making sandpaper has been special- 
ized to a degree which seemingly allows but little pos- 
sible improvement, and the production is so low in price 
that it is poor economy to use inferior paper, quality 
being so important that it outweighs every other con- 
sideration. 

The most important quality of the paper is 
strength; not strength in one direction merely, but in 
every direction. Paper, designed for sandpaper, is of 
two kinds : Cylinder and Fourdrinier. The cylinder has 
strength all in one direction ; the Fourdrinier paper has 
no grain, the fibers being distributed in such a manner 
that the strength is equal in every direction. Four- 
drinier paper will not tear in a straight line. It is 
made in combinations of fiber in different thicknesses, 
according to the grit to be applied. 

Few people realize the adhesive power of the best 
glue, and sandpaper demands the finest. It has to be 
specially made and must be very elastic. When it is con- 
sidered that fine glue has cohesive power equal and even 
superior to glass, the importance of the right glue can 
be readily understood. The glue acts not only as a 
binder, but aids materially in strengthening the paper. 

The term "sandpaper" is a misnomer, as sand is not 
used, the material, instead, being crushed flint rock or 
quartz. Flint rock, when fractured, presents the sharp- 
est edges procurable, whereas natural sand, exerii^^ed 



MANY 

VARIETIES OF 
SANDPAPER. 



62 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



HOW GARNET 
SANDPAPER 
IS MADE. 



under a microscope, will be found to have a rounded 
appearance, the cutting edges being considerably dulled 
by the action of wind and water. 

The garnet paper is made by the use of garnet ore, 
which is secured in the United States and abroad. It 
is not quite as sharp as flint rock, the particles fractur- 
ing in right angles, but the edges being more durable 
than flint. 

In grinding flint or garnet the material, in the form 
of large chunks, is first passed through crushers, which 
are graduated to produce the desired grit. The material 
is then carried to sifting rollers, which are, in reality, 
skeleton cylinders covered with fine bolting cloth. The 
material passes through the inside of these cylinders, 
which are placed at an angle, the larger pieces passing 
out at the other end, and only the finest material being 
sifted through. The sifted product is next passed 
through a series of vibrating separators, which deter- 
mine the different sizes with extreme exactness and 
uniformity. 

All kinds of sandpaper, emery paper and emery 
doth are made in rolls as large as that used in the 
printing of a daily paper. The process is continuous 
to such an extent that while the paper is still coming 
from the roll at one end, the finished product is being 
re-rolled at the other end. The first step in the process 
is the printing of the brand, which is done by passing 
through a roller press. The paper next dips into the 
glue, which is applied very hot, rubber buffers prevent- 
ing it spreading to the other side of the paper. From 
this it passes under brushes which distribute the glue 
evenly. It next passes under a shower of the grit de- 
sired, the surplus falling off by gravity at the first turn. 
A further application of a thin solution of glue gives 
an extra coating which thoroughly cements all the par- 
ticles. From this the paper passes over a hot blast 
dryer, and is suspended in long loops, traveling slowly 
for a considerable distance, to be finally rolled into a 
finished state. The sheets are cut by running the paper 
from the rolls through a cutter which drops them out, 
automatically counted, and delivered so that they can 
be assembled easily in quires and reams; 



THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD SANDING 



53 



To determine the quality of paper, tear it from 
each edge. Good paper will not tear straight readily. 
It does not tear cleanly, but the fiber pulls away, leaving 
an irregular edge. This characteristic should be the 
same, tearing from all four directions. When bent, the 
paper should give a good snapping sound, and when 
bent sharply the particles should not loosen and drop 
off. Another test is to rub two pieces from the same 
sheet together. This is a very severe test, but good 
paper will give up its grit with extreme reluctance, not 
showing the paper beneath without considerable rub- 
bing. Above all things, keep sandpaper in a dry 
place, away from an open window where there is a 
possibility of its absorbing moisture from the air. 

If the paper gets too dry and cracks or breaks when 
fastening it onto the drums, moisten the paper on the 
back before attempting to place it on the drums. This 
will do away with that trouble. 

Every user of sandpaper should know, if he but 
stops and thinks about it, that moisture is injurious to 
sandpaper and that it should be thoroughly dry when 
used, no matter whether it is paper to be used by hand 
or paper to be attached to a roll sander or any other 
Sander device. Moisture and heat both tend to soften 
the glue holding the sand to the paper, and to let the 
sand strip off, thus shortening the life and impairing 
the usefulness of the paper. 

Those who know this thoroughly perhaps often fail 
to appreciate another fact, and that is that sandpaper 
in stock will go and come more or less with the weather. 
It will absorb moisture from the air during rainy 
weather and should be dried before using. 

Indeed, it is well to treat sandpaper pretty much as 
one treats veneer before using it. No matter how well 
it has been taken care of, treat it to a little drying in a 
warm room to insure drying out all of the moisture be- 
fore using it. This may seem a little matter, but it is 
attention to small matters of this kind that often marks 
the difference between fairly good work and entirely 
satisfactory work. Surely if there is moisture in the 
sandpaper that will soften it, it is worth the time it 
takes to thoroughly dry the sandpaper before using. 



THE TESTING 
OF SANDPAPER. 



MOISTURE IS 
INJURIOUS TO 
SANDPAPER. 



FINISHERS 
SHOULD HAVE 
APTNESS. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE PROCESS OF STAINING WOODS 

STAINING is a branch of finishing that requires 
a man naturally adapted for the work to produce 
the best results, and even then he must give it 
his best efforts. Each and every stain has its own pe- foreman 
culiarity, and the man using it must be able and willing 
to adapt himself to the requirements of the stain he is 
using. Many troubles of the finishing room and many 
a headache that the foreman finisher endures have 
their inception in the staining room. 

All stains should be put on quickly. I make no ex- 
ception to that rule. No matter if it is an oil, acid, 
spirit or water stain, in order to insure satisfactory 
results in every detail speed must be used in applying 
it. If one is staining mahogany veneered work with 
water stain, it is necessary to cover the surface in the 
least possible time in order that the brush may not 
work up any of the glue that may have been squeezed 
through to the outer edge of the pores. 

Speed is also necessary to insure a strictly uniform 
depth of color throughout the surface. It is also neces- 
sary to have a uniform way of doing things. By that 
I mean to do the same thing the same way each time. 
Have some system. Suppose a man has a batch of 50 
mahogany sideboards to stain. The first thing to do is 
to stain the unimportant parts such as the back, bot- 
tom and inside of the board on your bench. 

There are various reasons for doing these parts 
first, but the chief one is this : If the more prominent 
and important parts were stained first and one were to 
allow some stain to run over an edge, or get any stain 
on these prominent parts after they have once been 
stained, it is liable to show up after goods are varnished 
unless the utmost care is exercised in removing it. 
Whereas any stain that may run over on these parts, 
while they are yet in the white, will be lifted and 
worked out when the regular coat is applied. 



56 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



THE NEED OF 
FOLLOWING 
A SYSTEM. 



Then have a place to start and a place to stop. Most 
finishers work to the right, so in order to illustrate 
what we mean we will start to stain at the top of the 
left hand gable. It will facilitate matters greatly if we 
stain the edge of the top as we go along, wiping it off 
immediately. This will prevent the possibility of it 
becoming daubed and spotted. Staining the gable, we 
proceed to the edge and the inside of the pilaster. This 
done, we stain the front edge of the top, wiping it off 
immediately, and proceed downward, staining the 
drawer and door divisions. Then up the truss and pi- 
laster on the other side and around to and down the 
right hand gable. Now the case is all stained except 
the top, which is stained last. In staining the flat of 
the top we will put but a light coat on the edges, which 
have already been stained and wiped off. This will 
give the edges the same depth of color as the rest of 
the case. 

By going about the work in this systematic way one 
can do more and better work, with much less labor and 
worry. I have seen men stand before a piece of work, 
perhaps a large china cabinet, or some other such arti- 
cle, dreading to commence, fearing they would make a 
bad job of it before they got through. This would not 
be true if they would plan out the best way to proceed 
and follow it strictly. 

In staining mahogany one will frequently find a 
piece of plain wood alongside of a nice piece of African 
stripe. This is more likely to be found where solid wood 
has been used in connection with veneer. If this plain 
wood is left so, it will not look well after it is finished. 
An easy way to grain these plain parts is as follows: 
Make a small quantity of stain double the strength of 
that used on the case, ordinarily. Stain the case in the 
usual way with the regular stain and when about half 
dry (the surface must still be showing moisture) ; 
take a small camel hair pencil brush and with the dark 
stain stripe the plain parts to match the balance of the 
wood. If the first coat is not allowed to become too 
dry before the stripes are put on, the dark' stain will 
flow out nicely to a fine feather edge and be sufficiently 
like the genuine to puzzle the most expert. 



THE PFOCESS OF STATNTNG WOOD 



57 



GETTING THE 

SAME STAIN 
SHADE. 



To get the same depth of color on Cuban mahogany 
as on African mahogany, a stain about one-half 
stronger is required for the former than for the latter. 

Birch may be treated the same way except that the 
stain for this wood, if it is to match mahogany, must be 
double the strength of that used on the mahogany. 
Some stainers in staining articles with both birch and 
mahogany put two coats of the ordinary stain on the 
birch. They stain all the birch parts first, and when 
these are dry they then stain the whole article. 

Frequently a stainer has diflficulty in getting hand 
carvings dark enough. Mahogany being a soft wood 
and the carver an expert, he is able to make complete, 
clean, perfect cuts, which require no sanding to make 
them perfectly smooth. But here is where the trouble 
lies — they are too smooth. The depth of color will be 
regulating by the absorbing qualities of the wood and 
an absolutely smooth piece of wood can absorb very 
little color. There must be a loosening of the fibers to 
enable the wood to absorb the color. This can be done 
best by sanding. As previously explained, the coarser 
the sandpaper the more fiber will be loosened and 
raised, and the more of this loose fiber there is, the 
darker the stain will take. All mahogany carvings, 
therefore, should be sanded before staining if the 
proper depth of color is to be expected. 

In staining case goods, an air of refinement is lent 
to them if the inside is stained about 50 per cent 
lighter than the exterior. Open up a sideboard, dresser staining 
or wardrobe, and everything else being equal, if the inside 
inside is lighter than the outside, one is impressed with of case 
the distinguished appearance of the whole thing. The goods adds 
dark exterior, by the law of contrast and harmony, refinement 
gives the interior a chaste appearance while the latter 
by the same law increases the richness of the color 
effect of the exterior. 

I have read that a water stain should be put on with 
a sponge, but I have never been able to find the man 
who could give me the reason why. A sponge is the 
proper thing to use for sponging the wood before stain- 
ing. It will help loosen and lift the fuzz which is to 
be sanded off when dry. So far as possible the object 



58 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



BEST METHOD 
OF APPLYING 

WATER STAIN. 



desired in sponging is to be avoided when staining. 
The less fuzz raised with the first stain the better. 

A rubber-bound polar bear hair brush is the best 
thing with which to apply water stain. In putting 
golden oak stain on large plain surfaces a more uniform 
job can be made if the stain is applied with a cloth, 
using the ordinary fitch brush for the smaller parts. A 
fitch is the proper thing to use in applying turpentine 
stains, such as most of our Early English and weath- 
ered oak stains are. 

If a piece of stained wood which has not had a coat 
of any other material, has a patch of stain scraped off 
and it is desired to re-stain so that it can never be de- 
tected, proceed as follows: First, stain the patch with 
the regular stain and allow it to dry. The patch can 
now be distinguished by a narrow border darker than 
the rest and which is caused by the stain lapping. Now 
take a small quantity of the regular stain and reduce 
it one-half and apply a coat of this to the whole sur- 
face. When this is dry, the border caused by the lap 
will have disappeared and the patch cannot be found. 

In applying an oil stain, it is necessary to spread 
the stain out quickly, especially on oak in order to pre- 
vent the large open pores drinking in more than they 
can properly dispose of. Extreme care must be exer- 
cised in this respect when staining end wood. In 
staining veneered work the stain cannot penetrate 
deeper than the glue ; but in solid oak of the softer va- 
rieties, the stain will penetrate to a considerable depth. 

One frequently sees oak furniture with the stain 
oozing out of the pores in places. This is usually 
caused by one of the three following things : Working 
so slowly that the stain is allowed to penetrate to a 
considerable depth before being brushed out; coating 
too heavy with the stain, or filling before the stain has 
suflficient time to properly dry. Stain allowed to pene- 
trate to such a depth goes beyond the reach of air, and 
consequently cannot dry in the time usually allowed 
for that purpose. 

After the goods are filled and perhaps varnished, 
the stain deep down in the pores begins to generate a 
gas which creates a pressure beneath the filler, and 



THE PROCESS OF STAINING WOOD 59 

soon it throws out the filler and varnish and begins to 
ooze out itself. But it does not always wait until the 
wood has been filled before this action takes place. One 
may wipe the stain off clean and on examination after 
the goods have stood for a few hours, find a little circle 
of hardened stain around each pore as evidence that 
the oozing has already commenced. 

When one finds himself confronted with a condition 
such as this, he must call a halt and either give the 
stain considerable extra time to dry, or do something 
to extract it from the pores. In any event he should 
dampen a cloth with benzine or something similar, and 
remove the circles from around the pores. This will 
likely give the wood in the immediate vicinity a faded 
appearance. The proper thing to do then is to rub the 
whole surface affected with the cloth, making it uni- 
form. Then take a little stain on another cloth and rub 
it over the surface. This will restore the proper shade. 

If the goods are wanted quickly, and it is thought 
that to allow the stain to dry out thoroughly will con- 
sume too much time, much of the stain may be ex- 
tracted by applying to the whole affected surface a good 
coat of benzine, working it well into the pores. Wipe 
this off and apply a second coat, wiping it off also. 
Allow a few hours for drying, keeping an eye on it to 
see that any stain that may continue to ooze out is 
wiped off before it hardens. Then take some stain on a 
cloth and apply a light coat to the surface, allowing 
very little to enter the pores. This will restore the 
original color which was destroyed by the benzine. 

If stain oozes out after the goods are filled and var- 
nished, it is not remedied so easily. Usually the bet- 
ter way will be to remove the varnish, wash out the 
pores with benzine and refinish. 



ONE GREAT 
DIFFICULTY 
WITH STAIN. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE CLASSIFICATION OF STAINS 

STAIN materials, as employed in the production of 
stains, cause our stains to be classified as water 
stains, oil, spirit, and again as acid or alkaline ^^ter stains 
stains. Without a doubt those produced by dissolving ^j^^, ^^^ j^^s^ 
the color material in water give us the best and most satisfactory. 
satisfactory medium for the coloring of the wood. 

Artisans have argued that as in most cases the sap 
of the wood in the natural tree is mostly water, the 
wood from this tree more readily absorbs a liquid of 
the same nature. Therefore, when the color is dis- 
solved in water, a more even penetration is obtained. 
It also penetrates farther, owing to the fact that the 
evaporation of the water is not so rapid as that of 
alcohol or any of the coal tar solvents usually employed. 
Again, the water soluble color material at hand ex- 
ceeds all of the others combined. 

In describing stains, we have said that the material 
employed designates the name. In the trade a finisher 
immediately knows what materials are apt to be em- 
ployed when he is told that a water stain was used. He 
immediately seeks his supply of materials from ani- 
lines. If he is told it is an acid stain, he infers that 
chemicals are employed and it may be in conjunction 
with an aniline color. 

Spirit stains of today would indicate an aniline, 
soluble in alcohols. Oil stain would indicate an aniline 
soluble in oil. By these oils, however, is meant turpen- 
tine, but more often such hydrocarbon compounds as 
benzole, xytol, etc. In the alKaline stains he would look 
for ammonia, soda or potash, as the case may be. 

The terms have simply been brought out by the use 
of the materials employed, and as there has never been 
a definite basis upon which to build stains, it is the in- 
timate knowledge and practice that has brought out to 
the artisan an understanding of the terms employed. 
The present-day demands upon the finishing depart- 



62 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



WATER STAINS 
PRODUCE COLOR 
SHADES. 



ment are so varied that a familiarity with all the meth- 
ods used to arrive at a result should be known in that 
part of the factory. The more varied the line, the still 
greater are the demands on the finishing end. 

That water stains supply us with practically every 
shade that is desired or in use is a conceded fact, and 
that they are not always used is usually a matter of 
dollars and cents in regard to the cost of the finished 
article. We do not know of any style that could not be 
produced with water colors. Of course, there are 
always these exceptions, that small obstacles may arise 
from the use of the water stain, such as thin veneers 
and delicate woods, and in these places the oil color or 
the spirit color is usually brought into play. 

The comparative value of these stains, and it must 
be understood that we are talking of the present day 
method of production, is all in favor of the water stain, 
particularly in regard to its permanency and fastness 
to light. Spirit stains and oil stains will fade, the per- 
centage, however, varying greatly in accordance with 
the colors. Thus it will be seen it is unadvisable to use 
a combination of stains on any one job. Spirit stains 
are usually used for quick work or for touching up, 
and that is all the consideration they should be entitled 
to when their qualifications in regard to permanency 
are considered. 

Oil stains are usually employed on the cheaper 
grades of furniture, and where the finish is put on so 
heavy as to thoroughly protect them against the air. 
The eff"ect of the light is then greatly modified owing to 
the fact that the light is without the assistance of air 
and in consequence oil stains are claimed to be perma- 
nent. On the interior of case goods, oil stains are in 
favor. They do not require the subsequent sanding, 
and the variations of shades due to the wood are not 
objected to as they would be on the outer surfaces. 

We do not consider plant extracts in our industry, 
as they are practically off the market, and it is difficult 
to obtain them of a uniform strength. We mention acid 
and alkaline stains. Generally speaking an acid stain 
is one in which we find chromic, acetic, tannic and pyro- 
gallic acids, and in which the solution has an acid re- 



THE CLASSIFICATION OF STAINS 63 

action stronger than that of the anilines, although 
usually they are employed in conjunction with an ani- 
line. 

The tannic and the pyrogallic, however, form the 
basis of brown shades produced by the subsequent ap- 
plication of alkalies. These alkaline stains, we said, 
were made out of the volatile alkali, ammonia and the 
fixed alkali of soda and potash salts. We say a volatile 
alkali when speaking of ammonia and it is well to re- 
member that word. Ammonia itself is a gas, and the 
only way we can handle it is by the absorption of a 
certain amount of this gas when it is run into water. 
This, however, is not a fixed or definite proposition. 
Every time it is handled, the amount of ammonia gas is 
reduced. Stains in which ammonia is employed should 
be made up fresh, and to be accurate should be made 
according to hydrometer tests. 

Uniformity of color is the great essential. After a 
stain is once found correct, the greatest difficulty is to 
keep it uniform. This is a diflficult proposition where 
ammonia is employed. Therefore, the fixed alkalies are 
preferable. In general, alkalies produce a brown shade 
when applied to wood, and this peculiar action is taken 
advantage of as much as possible without injury to the 
wood, to the brushes, or the hands of the operator. 

In this method of staining, the volatile alkali, am- 
monia, has an advantage over the fixed alkalies. For 
after it has been applied and the work done, nothing 
remains on the wood that could produce a deleterious 
effect upon the subsequent finish. However, where the 
fixed alkalies are employed, if the amount be too great, 
their presence on and in the texture of the wood is apt 
to affect the subsequent coatings, through their saponi- 
fication of the oils. employed in the finishing processes. 

Alkalies, in conjunction with the chrome salts, are 
very popular just now in producing the various shades 
of brown, and bring what we call a strictly chemical 
stain, in aqueous solution, penetrate deeper, and in 
consequence a more satisfactory result is obtained than 
from staining which leaves a superficial coloring. Thus 
it will be noted that alkaline stains have a de^^ided 
alkaline reaction to litmus paper. 



ACID STAINS 
INTRODUCED. 



UNIFORMITY 

OF COLOR AN 
ESSENTIAL. 



64 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



HOW AN ACID 
STAIN SHOULD 
BE MADE UP. 



Before touching upon the reaction through which 
still deeper colors are obtained, by the use of the two 
diametrically opposite stains, alkaline and acid, just a 
word or two of the trade's conception of an acid stain. 
It should be a stain made up of acids and have an acid 
reaction, but unfortunately, any stain in which chemi- 
cals are employed, and which have a corrosive action 
on the wood and particularly on the hands, is termed 
an acid stain. Thus it will be seen it is judged by the 
effect rather than from the material of which it is made. 

Acid stains are few, but the acids employed in con- 
junction with materials held in solution in acid re- 
acting liquid should be termed acid stains. Not only 
are they made up of acid re-acting stain materials, but 
as a rule an excess of some acid is present which still 
further facilitates penetration and color. Simple acid 
stains, such as solution of tannic acid or pyrogallic 
acid, produces very little color in themselves; chromic 
acid produces a greater amount of color; picric acid a 
decided yellow. When this acid is used, in conjunction 
with a nigrosine, we produce the popular Early Eng- 
lish, and the acid has a double purpose in its yellow 
color ; it produces the olive black typical of Early Eng- 
lish stains, increases the penetration of the stain, and 
acts as a mordant for the aniline. 

Speaking of the results obtained by the use of the 
alkaline stains, and the acid stains, it is understood 
that this depends upon two separate applications. One 
could not mix the two and obtain the results. The 
chemical change which takes place must take place in 
the wood, in order to produce the color. It is exempli- 
fied particularly in the production of fumed oak, by the 
first coat being of tannic and pyrogallic acid and the 
subsequent coat, a strong alkaline solution of bichro- 
mate of potash, and possibly other chemicals, showing 
clearly that the two entirely opposite compounds when 
applied separately will produce colors in strength in 
direct ratio to the quantity of color chemicals employed. 

We have spoken of oil stains and spirit stains. 
Where the simDle coloring of wood is desired, they give 
us a very quick method of procuring a color which is 
ready for further finishing in a very short time. Those 



THE CLASSIFICATION OF STAINS 65 

of experience know the delicacy with which it must 
be handled in a subsequent procedure. Spirit stains, 
owing to the fact that they dry quickly, penetrate cor- 
respondingly less. Oil stains may penetrate more, but 
both are apt to lift with filler coats or shellac. The 
spirit stain is apt to color the shellac and thus be un- 
evenly deposited on the work. 

A comparison must determine judgment upon these 
various stains as to their qualifications for producing 
the best results. They all have a place in the finishing 
room, but for general good work, the water stain 
seems to give best that which is wanted. 



WATER STAIN 
GIVES BEST 
RESULTS. 



CHAPTER IX 

STAINING WITH CERTAINTY OF RESULTS 

MANUFACTURING today calls for time limits, 
and this affects the finishing as well as other 
departments. Stains, therefore, should be pre- 
pared so that the application in the regular manner 
will produce the desired color without any after-stain- 
ing or restaining. Those that are preferred make it 
possible to obtain the desired color with one applica- 
tion, or possibly two applications of the same stain. 
It is a peculiar fact that, as a rule, repeated coats pro- 
duce diversified results. 

In chemical stains the color production depends 
upon the chemical reaction of the first coat in conjunc- 
tion with the color-giving materials naturally present 
in the wood, and the chemicals applied in the second 
coat of stain. Chemical stains differ in their results 
inasmuch as the actual chemical change that takes place 
is definite, and can be ascertained before the applica- 
tion of either coat. The variance, therefore, that may 
take place is due only to such color-giving materials 
as naturally may be contained in the wood. 

To overcome this uncertainty, usually an excess of 
that which nature has furnished is applied, so that 
when the second coat is applied the chemical change 
depends upon the amount of chemicals in the second 
coat, and, therefore, is definite. An example of this is 
found in the present methods of producing brown, such 
as fumed oak, by the application in the first coats of 
tannic and pyrogallic acids, and the subsequent chemi- 
cal change which takes place when a solution of potas- 
sium bichromate, potassium carbonate, copper sulphate, 
stronger water of ammonia (26 degree) in water, is 
applied. 

It sometimes becomes necessary, in order to produce 
odd shades, to use two different anilines. We said 
"different" because they may be of different series, 
that is, one color might be known as an acid color, and 



PREPARING 

STAINS SO AS 
TO AVOID ANY 
RESTAINING. 



68 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



PRODUCING 

OOn SHADES. 



THE FOREMAN 
FINISHER DIC- 
TATES SITPPLIES 



the other as an Alizarean color, or a basic color. No 
two or these colors could be mixed in one solution, and 
therefore the shade may be obtained by the application 
of one, and when this is thoroughly dried, the second 
one is coated over the first. This is not recommended, 
but it shows a means by which the end can be obtained. 
After the wood so colored has been finished, the color 
is usually permanent, but not always. It denends upon 
what combinations were employed, and how thorouehly 
the finishing coat protects it. and the amount of light 
that the product is exposed to. 

The cost of production is a question ever present 
with the manufacturer. Those who recommend water 
stains are confronted by the arguments of those who 
recommend oil stains, and of those who recommend 
spirit stains. The consumer of stains, that is, the man 
who actually is in charge — the foreman finisher — un- 
doubtedly is the controlling snirit in each factory, and, 
as a rule, the methods favored by him dictate the sup- 
plies of that factory. 

If he is using water stains, he can tell you to the 
penny how much each gallon of stain costs ; he is usu- 
ally familiar with all the colors, chemicals and dye 
stuflFs that are required for the production of a stain. 
The more he handles them, the more he becomes ac- 
quainted with their peculiarities and thus he is more 
capable of circumventing any of the eccentricities that 
arise occasionally wherever chemical and kindred mix- 
tures are made. 

A factory, as a rule, is quite unlike a laboratory. 
Things have not been brought down to the nicety which 
the chemist has learned by experience must be present 
in order to have accuracy. The dried residue of a 
previous mixture may go unnoticed in the use of a 
measuring glass or container, and the amount of dam- 
age done to the new mixture is not realized, until, per- 
haps, an entire mixture goes wrong, the reason for 
which is afterwards ascertained bv experiment or 
otherwise. The natural precaution then would be that 
every vessel, dish or container employed in the finish- 
ing room be cleansed thoroughly before it is again put 
to use. 



STAINING ■■■ ■ITH CERTAINTY OF RESULTS 69 

We stated that the finisher employing water stains 
would be confronted with arguments from those em- 
ploying other stains. He will be told that the necessary 
sanding overcomes that difference in cost which he 
saves from the fact that water stains are cheaper. This 
statement I doubt very much. Gallon for gallon, a water 
stain will go farther than an oil stain ; it will go much 
farther than a spirit stain. Except for the sanding 
expense, each costs more than the water stain, and ow- 
ing to their quick penetration, neither will go as far as water stain 
a water stain ; and, lastly, they are not as permanent. ^^ the most 

Further, there are but very few chemicals, if any, workable. 
that are soluble in either oil vehicles or spirits. There- 
fore the colors depend on oleic or stearic derivitives of 
the anilines, or that series of anilines which are soluble 
in spirits. Another peculiarity is the fact that oil 
stains are used in factories where quick results are 
desired. Spirit stains do not enter into the furniture 
industry to any great extent, and, therefore, may be 
dropped from consideration here. 

However, since the advent of denatured alcohol the 
cost of spirit stains has been reduced greatly. Thev 
all have their places, and it is a fact that one cannot do 
what the others can do. A manufacturer of chean 
wooden toys who can immerse them into a water solu- 
tion of color by the basketful, and which sell for a few 
cents, would not be expected to dip them in a spirit 
stain, costing 10 to 20 times as much. Thus the selec- 
tion of the stain must be governed by the work at hand. 



CHAPTER X 

GENERAL RULES FOR STAINING WOOD 

WOOD staining not only requires the production 
of a stain, and the application of the various 
stain solutions, but the rational application 
of stain and a certain amount of knowledge of the dif- 
ferent woods in regard to their adaptability and sus- 
ceptibility toward a certain stain. With one and the 
same stain different results are obtained when applied 
to various woods. This is due to the very different 
chemical constituency of woods, which tannin or tannic 
acid, which is present in larger or smaller quantities, 
produces on many of the stains, chemical action vary- 
ing in results according to the quantity of this chemi- 
cal present. 

Two examples will explain: First, in applying a 
solution of two ounces of bichromate of potash in a 
half gallon of water to a species of wood, such as pine, 
or similar wood which contains a very small amount 
of tannin, the result will be that of a light yellow due 
to the chrome bichromate, which unfortunately is not 
fast to light, and, therefore, in this case is worthless. 
On the contrary, if you take the same bichromate of 
potash solution and apply it to any of the oaks, which 
are rich in tannin, the results will be a yellow brown 
color, comparatively permanent when subjected to 
light or air. This is due to the fact that the tannic acid 
present unites with the bichromate, forming a brown 
color material. Similar effects are to be had when 
this bichromate solution is applied to mahogany or 
black walnut, as both of these woods contain consider- 
able tannin. 

Second, stain whitewood or any wood in which the 
tannin is practically absent with a solution of sulphate 
of iron, one ounce, water one gallon, the result will be 
negative. However, if the same solution should be ap- 
plied to ash, oak or even maple, a gray color will be 
produced and on the oak it is very often possible to 



RESULTS VARY 
WITH SAME 
STAIN 



72 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



RESULTS ARE 
DEPENDENT 
ON TEXTURE 



LOCALITY 
INFLUENCES 
THE COLOR 



get the dark blue grays verging into black. This is 
obtained from the fact that sulphate of iron, or in fact, 
any salt of iron, when subjected to the action of tan- 
nic acid produces tannate of iron, which is the color- 
giving result of the procedure. 

The different textures of the woods, designated 
hard and soft, have a good deal to do with the results 
obtained by the application of the stain. In a closely 
grained wood of a hard texture the penetration of the 
stain is retarded, when on the contrary large-pored 
wood absorbs more stain, much quicker, with the result 
that an ordinary application of one stain on the two 
different kinds of wood will produce vastly different 
results. If one wishes to match the hardwood with that 
of a soft, it will be necessary to increase the strength 
of the stain, which is far preferable to the possible 
application of several coats of stain. In case of match- 
ing the hardwood by staining a soft wood, the stain 
will have to be reduced in proportion. This is recom- 
mended only after repeated tests have been made. A 
porous wood might give indications of being dry, and 
as tests are usually hurried the operator is apt to fool 
himself and to find later the results are too dark. 

A certain stain applied to a certain species of wood 
may not always give identical results, and in conse- 
quence the operator must be continually on his guard, 
as various growths and various localities will affect the 
stain with enough difference to manifest itself in the 
color produced. A thorough operator soon becomes 
aware of these peculiarities, and by applying the stain 
heavier or lighter he will succeed fairly well in holding 
to a uniformity of shade. Extreme cases, of course, 
need individual attention. 

Woods containing a great deal of sap, or resinous 
matter, present their difficulties especially when water 
stains are employed, but as they are not much employed 
in good furniture and as we have already touched upon 
the handling of the stain, it will suffice to say that 
occasional resinous portions that are met in cabinet 
woods are better individually treated. Where stains 
depend upon the presence of a certain quantity of 
tannin, the formula usually employed is built up so 



THAN OTHERS 



GENERAL RULES FOR STAINING WOOD 73 

that the minimum amount of tannin present will suffice 
to make the color desired ; otherwise the application 
of tannin is resorted to. 

It may be said that stains consisting entirely of the 
aniline dyes, in solution, reach their final shade much 
sooner, and with much more uniformity, than those 
which are made up of combinations of dyes and chemi- 
cals. It may be stated as universally true, that where 
chemicals are employed, some sort of chemical reac- aniline dyes 
tion is relied upon to produce the desired color. There- ^l^^t^^l^^^^^ 
fore, it will be seen readily that when the material to 
be stained is not always alike, although the same kind 
of wood, yet of sufficient difference in its physical con- 
stituency to make possible slight variance, from 24 to 
48 hours are required for the complete chemical re- 
action. 

Stains containing chemicals should be permitted to 
dry from 24 to 48 hours in normal temperature, in 
rooms that have a good circulation of air. Whatever 
chemical changes are to take place will have been com- 
pletely consummated within this lapse of time. 

Where more than one coat of stain is required to 
produce certain colors, it is always best to allow at 
least 24 hours between each coat. Sand the first coat 
after it is thoroughly dry, and then apply the second 
coat. This is just as essential, whether the stain is 
made up of anilines or chemicals, the desire always be- 
ing to produce a stain that is permanent. It may be 
well to state again that not all color materials permit 
being dissolved in one vehicle without injury to one 
another. That the novice may thoroughly understand, 
and further have a method of ascertaining and recog- 
nizing the fact when any of the rules are infringed 
upon, the following explanation will bring out the point : 

We have said there are several kinds of anilines. 
The acid anilines and the basic anilines, both are water 
soluble. The finisher, however, is unable to tell to what 
group they belong. It may be he has a beautiful shade 
of brown which has been doing his work, and he 
wishes to employ it in conjunction with some other 
colors. Not knowing that they are antagonistic, he 
makes his mixture which may not at once manifest the 



74 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



ANTAGONISM 
OF VARIOUS 

ANILINES 



chemical change that is about to take place or is taking 
place. Later on, however, a precipitate which is first 
recognized by the turbid appearance of the solution will 
show that the chemical reaction which is taking place 
is throwing part of the color material out of solution, 
and the stain, therefore, has become an unstable com- 
pound. As long as any chemical reaction takes place, 
there is an uncertainty about the color. This, however, 
has a fixed and definite place as s"oon as the acid has 
been neutralized by the alkali. The chemical action 
ceases, but in dealing with two color compounds, where 
the chemicals are aniline salts we are treading on 
pretty thin ice in an eflfort to obtain a color, and, there- 
fore, it is always best to discard any attempt at pro- 
ducing a stain by the use of anilines of different reac- 
tions. 

This undoubtedly will find some exponents who have 
had satisfactory results by having done just what we 
say not to do, probably for this reason : They use ma- 
terial far in excess of the amount required, and thus 
overcome that which was lost by precipitation. The 
excess color having precipitated out, left in solution 
enough color material to produce the result. It will be 
seen that this is an expensive and uncertain way be- 
cause at different temperatures there would be more 
or less precipitation, with a probability of a turbid 
solution which at its best is not a satisfactory stain. 

In a measure this applies to chemicals. It may be 
known that one chemical applied to wood will produce 
a certain color, and if a second chemical be applied over 
that coat a different color is produced, but that in no 
way signifies that the two chemicals may be mixed in 
solution and with one coat produce the same results. 
Again, for example, if wood is coated with an iron salt, 
the usual color is a shade of gray. If a strong alkali 
is dissolved in water, and put over this gray coat a 
brown of some shade is produced. 

If you take any iron salt, and dissolve it in water 
(practically all iron salts are soluble in water) and add 
to this solution any form of alkaline salt, or alkali, 
such as potash, soda, or ammonia, or their salts, such 
as carbonate of potash, carbonate of soda (respectively, 



GENERAL RULES FOR STAINING WOOD 75 

salts of tartar or sal soda), a brown precipitate is the 
result. The brown precipitate is represented as the 
oxide of iron. The balance of the solution will contain 
the acid radical of the iron salt as having combined 
with the alkaline base of potash or soda. We have then 
a cloudy solution, which cloudiness is due to the oxide 
of iron, and which will settle, and leave in the solution 
the salts of the alkalies, whichever may have been em- 
ployed, showing us clearly that by application of the 
same material in separate coats it was possible to ob- 
tain a certain color on the wood, but that it is not at 
all feasible to attempt to do it in one coat by putting 
the various materials into one solution. 

By giving our readers such a strong illustration it 
carries with it an exemplification of that which is often 
attempted, and the failure not recognized. If our 
readers will but take the time to carry out the last 
example and make practical experiments, the result- 
ant information will be invaluable. 

Producing solutions of anilines, dye stuffs and 
chemicals should always be carried on with a certain 
degree of care, and especially cleanliness. Water being 
the most commonly employed solvent, a certain amount 
of care is to be given. It is a well known fact that cer- 
tain waters are hard, especially those taken from wells. 
Some may contain magnesium, and some iron, but in 
most cases they all contain more or less lime. The dif- 
ferent percentages of any of these present affect the 
color materials in their same ratio. It is best, there- 
fore, to employ boiled water, or in a factory to obtain 
the water from the returned steam. The dishes or 
containers employed should be absolutely clean. Noth- 
ing is better than earthenware and glass measures. 
Solutions are best obtained by employing hot water. 
The maximum amount of color material can be dis- 
solved at increased temperatures. Thorough solutions 
are obtained by powdering the dye stuffs, by stirring 
and agitating while dissolving the material, and by in- 
creasing the temperature by boiling the solution. 

An excess amount of color material may be brought 
into solution by boiling, which will again solidify or 
precipitate out when the temperature falls to normal. 



A PRACTICAL 
ILLUSTRATION 
GIVEN 



GREAT NEED 
OF CARE AND 
CLEANLINESS 



76 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



EXTRACTS 
EXPOSED TO 
AIR DIFFICULT 
TO HANDLE 



Let it be understood that the application of heat is used 
only to hasten the dissolving of the color material. 

In the case of vegetable extracts, such as logwood, 
japonica, cutch, etc., uniformity is absolutely neces- 
sary. If they are kept exposed to air, which carries 
with it a certain amount of moisture, these materials 
are apt to absorb this moisture, and then take on a 
thick, gummy consistency, difficult to handle, or if kept 
in extreme hot or dry places, they are apt to cake, and 
then become difficult to remove from their container. 

All chemicals should be kept in air-tight containers; 
especially is this necessary in factories where there are 
more or less vapors and gases to contend with. There is 
ever present in air, carbonic acid gas, which in itself 
is a chemical reagent to which color materials are sus- 
ceptible. It will readily be seen if a chemical formula, 
a stain formula, were made up from material received 
in prime condition, that it is absolutely essential the 
material be kept in that condition until it is consumed 
for the sake of uniformity. Much of the difficulty, the 
continual doctoring of formulas, is traceable directly 
to the indifferent handling of the materials, dirty 
dishes, uncovered containers, in fact, complete disre- 
gard for any of the physical peculiarities which are so 
common to dye materials. 

Having obtained the formula, make a record of each 
ingredient ; weigh carefully, and take care that a com- 
plete solution is made. If an article is given you as 
water soluble, the success of your formula depends 
upon making an entire solution of it. Should the mix- 
ture become clouded, you have no way of telling what 
percentage of your color is going to precipitate out. 
The very fact that the solution is cloudy or turbid must 
tell you that something is not completely in a state of 
solution. 

Every color-giving article has its percentage of 
solubility. Some of them are greater than others. You 
will find, as a rule, that the nigrosines have a greater 
solubility than the oranges. The same is true of most 
of the lighter shades. Vvhen you go beyond that per- 
centage, heat will greatly increase the percentage of 
color that you cannot dissolve. But it is not safe to 



INCREASE 
PERCENTAGE 
OF SOLUBILITY 



GENERAL RULES FOR STAINING WOOD 77 

attempt this remedy unless you can apply the stain hot. 
While we recommend the dissolving of colors by heat- 
ing, this is more to hasten the solution than otherwise. 
The complete solubility to be employed is that which 
will stand at a temperature of about 50 degrees. Your 
solution must remain clear at that temperature. Should 
it precipitate out, as it many times does, where water 
stains are subjected to freezing temperature, it should 
be dissolved again by heat, for be it known that crystal- 
lization takes place by the chilling of saturated solu- heat will 
tions. 

When a chilled solution begins to crystallize, the 
crystallization takes from the solution a larger per- 
centage of color than one can realize. In some cases it 
almost exhausts the solution of the color material that 
had heretofore been in complete solution. Therefore, in 
cold weather, when your stain begins to run light, the 
above may give you a cue for remedying the trouble. 
Again, in some mixtures, the chilling may affect one 
color and not another. Alcohol mixtures are not so 
easily affected. Oil mixtures are very seldom affected, 
but oil colors will crystallize, especially where the sol- 
vents are loaded to obtain the desired shades. 

The practical man at once will recognize that if he 
dissolves his color material by the aid of heat, and it 
precipitates when it again resumes the temperature of 
the room, he has a super-saturated solution, and he will 
have to increase the amount of water or decrease the 
amount of material. There are cases where it is neces- 
sary, in order to get the depth of color, to use super- 
saturated solution. This is sometimes the case where 
dipping is employed, such as small parts, and in these 
cases the solution is kept at a boiling point by the in- 
jection of steam by means of a steam jet. 

The careful operator filters his stains, and a felt 
filter is a most desirable stain room accessory. 

All color materials, whether anilines, vegetables ex- 
tracts or chemicals, should be kept in sealed packages 
in a dry, but not too warm room. Many of them have 
a peculiarity of absorbing moisture from the air. 
Others give off moisture. It is not uncomm.on to take 
a can of carbonate of potash and on opening it find it 



COLOR 
MATERIALS 
SHOULD BE 
KEPT DRY 



78 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



MOISTURE IS 
ABSORBED FROM 
AIR BY SOME 
COLORS 



in a white graular salt. Put it back on the shelf with- 
out sealing it, or closing the can, only to find the next 
time you want it, it has liquified. If any of it remains 
so you can put it on a scale, you cannot say with cer- 
tainty whether the ounce or two you are weighing out 
represents the same strength that the first portion you 
took out represented. 

This is a case of absorption of moisture from the 
air. 

Again, you may have a pound of sulphate of iron 
crystals. When you received these crystals they were 
bright green, glass-like particles. Going through the 
same procedure, you will find the next time that each 
crystal is coated with a grayish powder, and if you 
weigh the same quantity of this sulphate of iron in its 
second condition, you will have a vastly larger amount 
of sulphate of iron in your second weighing than you 
did in the first. For sulphate of iron in its crystalline 
form contains a large amount of water, and when it is 
not kept in an absolutely air-tight container, it will 
give oflF some of this water of crystallization with the 
result that a large percentage of sulphate of iron 
known as dried sulphate of iron, is present. 



STAIN BEST 
APPLIED BY 



CHAPTER XI 

THE APPLYING OF STAIN TO WOOD 

THE various stain solutions are usually applied 
cold. Occasionally they are warmed in order 
the better to penetrate the wood. The applica- 
tion of stain, as a rule, is accomplished by the use of 
brushes, preferably rubber set brushes. The brush is to 
be filled well with stain material and the actual stain- brushes 
ing accomplished with full, strong strokes of the brush. 
This because of the fact that a comparatively dry brush 
will tend to streak the work. This is particularly true 
where large surfaces are stained. 

Where the wood presents open pores and large 
pores, a stiffer brush should be employed. It may be 
necessary after the first stain is applied to use one of 
these coarse, heavy brushes to rub the stain well into 
the wood, for often these coarse pored woods will not 
take the stain as well as one would naturally expect. 
The pores are filled with air cells which must be broken 
before the stain can penetrate, and unless this be cared 
for the result will not show the uniformity that it 
should. It always must be borne in mind that staining 
is an effort to make it appear as though the entire 
wood through and through is the color as that being 
applied. 

While the vast majority of stains are applied by 
means of brushes, there are cases where it is impos- 
sible to do the work with a brush. Stains, in which 
strong alkaline solutions, such as ammonia, the car- 
bonates, hydroxides of soda or potash, are employed, or 
strong acids, or strong oxidizing chemicals, such as 
permanganate of potash, are better applied with a 
sponge or brushes made of vegetable fibers, such as 
tampica, hemp and wood fibers. 

Whenever a stain curls the hair in a brush, no mat- 
ter how trifling, it is better to do away with the means 
of application than to continue, for the very good rea- 
son that as the brush is subjected to the stain it be- 



SPONGE USED 
WITH STRONG 
ALKALINES 



80 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



AVOID BRUSH 
WITH HAIR 
CURLING 



NEUTRAL OIL 
PRESERVATIVE 
FOR BRUSHES 



comes less efficient, and the results will be manifested 
in an uneven appearance of the stain coat ; once stained 
it will be difficult to make an even job of the effort. 
The preparation of the hair or bristles has more or 
less to do with the lasting quality of the brush. 

From their very nature bristles that have not been 
cured to an excess will resist more or less alkali and in 
the same manner they will withstand an acid. When 
the stain brush is cleaned out, after it has been used, 
in a very weak acid solution, and washed out in plain 
water, permitted to dry, and immersed in a penetrating 
petroleum oil, use any of the lighter parafRne oils. The 
market affords a water-white paraffine oil put out as 
liquid vaseline. This is an ideal brush preservative. 

Neutral oil which can be obtained at 25 cents per 
gallon will do very well. After the brush has been im- 
mersed in this oil over nignt, it may be taken out and 
thoroughly dried by rubbing on rags or waste until it 
no longer gives off any fatty or oily substance on clean 
paper. Brushes treated in this way will give an im- 
mense amount of endurance. It would be natural to 
suppose that a brush prepared in this manner would 
not carry the amount of stain that it did in its original 
state. This, however, is only the case for a few minutes 
after it is again employed in staining. But the tenacity 
of the bristle, the resiliency, is more permanent 
throughout the day's work than if a brush is not pre- 
pared to withstand the inroads of the chemical sub- 
stances, the action of which on the animal fiber is not 
withstood by some substance not affected by the con- 
stituents of the stain. Stains which are slightly alka- 
line or acid may be applied with bristle brushes. The 
foregoing suggestions rather cover those with a slight 
acid reaction, but the coal oils do not answer readily to 
the weaker alkalies as they do not saponify when 
brought in contact with alkalies. 

In cases where it is absolu::ely necessary to apply 
strong alkaline or strong acid stains, the hands may be 
protected by washing them in heavy oils, such as cylin- 
der oil, or better still, by thoroughly coating them with 
vaseline. Especially is this recommended for the tips 
of the fingers, under and around the finger nails, and 



THE APPLYING OF STAIN TO WOOD 81 

the back of the hands. Then in applying the stain 
with a sponge, the sponge should be previously im- 
mersed in the stain solution, which is absolutely for- 
eign in nature to the vaseline on the hand, and in con- 
sequence thereof it will spread the stain without re- 
moving enough of the grease from the operator's hands 
to have any effect on the wood. 

The few moments required to prepare the workman 
for handling these strong stains and the expense of 
keeping at hand a few pounds of vaseline, which can 
be purchased in the open market, are slight. It may be 
well to say that in calling for vaseline, which is put out 
by an individual who has the word "Vaseline" copy- 
righted, the purchaser is apt to be confronted with a 
stiff price. The United States government has recog- 
nized this product under the name of "Petrolatum," 
and as such it is supplied by any of the petroleum com- 
panies at lower figures. It may not be as highly re- 
fined, but its efficiency is nevertheless satisfactory. 
Incidentally the same protection can be employed where 
strong acid solutions are used in staining. 

These precautionary measures are well to consider, 
as the trend of times is manifestly toward chemical 
stains. The dominating shades employed in wood fin- 
ishing have been brown and at the present time they 
are brown, Due occasionally have verged on black. A 
peculiar fact is that the two shades, exclusive of the 
reds, are depende/it upon the chemical reaction which 
the latter-day chemist has found for the finisher. 
Classing them as a whole with their modifications and 
their extremes, every one of them can be produced by 
the use of chemicals. 

Granting, then, that sooner or later such stains will 
be preferred, it is well to know how to handle them 
advantageousl5^ Two strong factors confront this 
method of coloring woods : One, which is ever present 
in human endeavor, is the results obtained through the 
minimum cost ; namely, the putting of a certain amount 
of aniline dye in a given amount of water, and spread- 
ing it on the wood producing a color the quickest and 
cheapest way, just good enough to sell. The other, from 
the fact that the industry is yet a rule-o'-thumb propo- 



PROTECT THE 
HANDS BY OIL 
OR VASELINE 



DOMINATING 
COLOR STAINS 
ARE BROWN 



82 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



FUMING NOW 
CONSIDERED 
AN ESSENTIAL 



sition when it comes into the finishing department. 

No reader will admit that a brown color spread 
on wood will give the same shade as that produced by 
the lengthy, more expensive method of actual fuming. 
There is something superficial about the one ; no matter 
how much after-fixing may have been done, it does 
not produce that wholesome appearance that the fum- 
ing brings forth. It has not been so long since a fuming 
box was considered an expensive luxury, but today very 
few concerns that rank as producers of high grade fur- 
niture are without their fuming box. The fuming 
process not only produces fumed oak, it produces what 
is known as "English Fumed Oak," "Stratford Oak," 
and may be used as a basis for many of the other oaks, 
were it only true that the subsequent application of 
chemicals and the great possibilities were realized and 
understood by the artisan of today. 

Granting then that the fuming box has been recog- 
nized as a valuable adjunct, that the aniline dyes have 
made a vast stride over the obsolete methods of juices, 
extracts, or vegetable plants, we will soon enter the era 
of chemical staining. This in no way means that ani- 
lines are to be superseded, for they are chemicals, com- 
plex chemicals, which unfortunately are not thoroughly 
understood. The writer claims that each day we are 
gaining ground in the matter of understanding better 
the chemical peculiarities of these delicate color-giving 
chemicals. The desire to make something better, to be 
a leader, is a road fraught with countless difficulties. 
Few venture away from conventional methods. 

Innovations in procedure are not countenanced by 
many heads of industries. They fear disaster from 
experiments. Enterprise, originality, personal initia- 
tive by the man at the head of a finishing department, 
are given little or no financial support. It is a case of 
get out the work, and never mind experiments, and 
thus many an idea is lost. The man feels that he has 
given all that is asked of him when the daily routine 
is carried out. 

Again, new methods are not taken to kindly. The 
usual reply is, "Our goods are selling; why should we 
change." But there comes a time when an individual 



COMING 



THE APPLYING OF STAIN TO WOOD 83 

drifts away from the rut, and does start something. A 
few people put in fuming boxes ; competition has made 
it necessary for many others, who wish to equal the 
standard, to do likewise, and so it will be in the process 
of staining. Better furniture will find a market. At- 
tention to little details will find appreciation, and when 
competition finally recognizes the value of detail there 
will be a scramble in the effort to meet the competition, i 

and thus will be recorded one more stride in the better- 
ment and advancement in the method of producing better stain- 

, „ ., ING METHOD 

good lurmture. 

In preparing a classification of stains for the reader 
It will become necessary to generalize and to group such 
that depend upon kindred mixtures for results. For 
example, many stains come under the brown shades, 
whether on oak or mahogany ; yet fumed oak will stand 
out by itself. The mahogany and the cherry stains will 
constitute another class with the distinction that those 
applied to mahogany are differently constituted than 
those which are applied on cherry ; whereas their color 
material may be very similar. In bringing out classi- 
fications of this kind it is with the view of giving a com- 
prehensive survey of all stains that are now in general 
use. We believe that a thorough understanding of 
the basis of the present day staining will bring the 
reader up-to-date, and upon which knowledge it will 
be possible to build a future along the line of the 
more advanced theory of producing absolutely per- 
manent, but transparent, colors on our cabinet woods. 

In order to do this, we must dismiss some of the 
older methods of producing colors on wood, claiming 
that a stain implies the act of giving a color to the 
wood absolutely transparent, and not in any way pro- 
ducing a color by spreading over the surface of the 
wood a solid particle, no matter how finely divided a 
state it may be in. That, in our mind, would be and 
should be classified as paint. There are books written 
on finishing, and articles appearing in periodicals, in 
which formulas and methods are given for producing 
some of our popular colors by means of paint pigments. 
These are mixed with oils and spread over the wood, 
producing a shade not unlike that of a stained piece of 



GROUPS OF 
STAINS 



84 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



SHUN STAIN 
MADE OF 
PAINT PIGMENT 



FOUR CLASSES 
OF STAINS 



wood, but they are not transparent, and as before 
said, should not be regarded as a stain. 

In the painter's trade it would be a different propo- 
sition; many old houses in perfect condition are 
planned to be finished in harmony with the general 
color scheme of the day. In cases of this kind, the 
ground work constitutes the first coat, and the imita- 
tion is accomplished by graining. Therefore, we do 
not disparage entirely the old methods in case of neces- 
sity or where materials are not obtainable ; but in pro- 
duction of furniture from the raw wood we advocate 
the application of the modern method of staining, 
meaning the production of a transparent color that 
gives to the wood the color preserving the natural 
beauty and still having the appearance of being na- 
ture's product. 

Broadly speaking, the four classifications will cover 
all the stains now employed in the industry: Black, 
brown, red and green, and probably in the order 
named. In their varying shades, down to grays, they 
are produced along similar lines, and the same of the 
browns (except in the case of fuming), the reds and 
the greens. All have a similarity. The final result, 
however, in many cases, is affected very much by the 
filler employed. Let it be borne in mind that not too 
much dependence should be placed in the filler assisting 
in the production of the desired effect. Time has shown 
that in the ages and the mellowing of the shade, which 
only years can produce, if too much of the finish de- 
pends upon the filler, the original appearance is not 
maintained, and a decided difference is shown between 
the flake and the pores. This is not desirable, and es- 
pecially is it manifested where oil stains have been 
employed. 

It is not our province to enter into the various con- 
stituencies or peculiarities of the materials employed 
in the modern methods of staining. This field would be 
so vast that an undertaking of this kind would mean a 
book of technical knowledge which could be compre- 
hended only by those having been prepared in chem- 
istry and other scientific fields. Suflfice it then to say 
that it be taken for granted the reader shall follow the 



THE APPLYING OF STAIN TO WOOD 85 

suggestions and familiarize himself with this informa- 
tion sufficiently to be able, from his experiments, to 
become acquainted with the reaction and the results 
obtained by the recommended color-giving substances; 
thus verifying in his own mind the correctness of these 
statements by producing on his own premises the re- 
sults here stated. 

A complete tabulation is not necessary to carry out 
our viewpoint. Let the modern shades of Early Eng- 
lish, Antwerp, Flemish, weathered oak and the grays 
represent that part which we classify as black. They 
are usually produced, in the cases of Early English and 
Antwerp, by a black stain, modified with an orange, 
red or yellow, but filled with a black filler, whereas 
Belgian and Flemish are on the black and should be 
modified with sufficient red to give a faint brownish 
tint, but are not to be filled. 

The production then of the key color is black. At 
present black nigrosine is the most popular, and can black 
be recommended because one coat suffices to produce nigrosine the 

TCPY OOLOR 

the shade wanted. But in olden times this color was 
produced from nutgalls, today represented by tannic 
acid and iron, or any salt of iron. 

Before the day of varnish, when repeated coats of 
oil were used, a depth of color was obtained which gave 
it that wholesome eff'ect, the appearance as though the 
wood were of that color through and through. The 
reason is simple ; nutgalls or tannic acid was not a for- 
. eign product, in fact, it was partly present in the 
wood. The iron solution being watery, penetrated the 
wood to a greater excess than will any single coat of 
stain, carrying with it a foreign product. It is a pe- 
culiar fact that any stain if made of chemicals has a the old way 
greater penetrating power than one made ud of ani- of finishing 
lines exclusively. Then, too, if this chemical solution 
is heated or applied warm, it will penetrate farther. If 
it is something that has an affinity for particles form- 
ing parts of the constituents of the wood, it penetrates 
still farther. This is shown in the example just given. 
Again, the depth of color was greatly enhanced from 
the fact that warm oils were applied and rubbed into 
the wood. The oil having the effect of driving the 



VALUABLE 
PROCEDURE 



86 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHIN G ROOM 

chemical action before it and still deeper into the 
wood. 

If the manufacturers of today would only consider 
the beautiful effects that could be produced by using 
the foregoing method, and then fume the wood, sim- 
ply finishing by repeated coats of warm raw linseed oil, 
and doing considerable rubbing, there would be a new 
market, and, we claim, sufficient support to the con- 
cern showing the enterprise to take advantage of the 
suggestion. But today it is hurry and hurry ; "get the 
goods out." 

The grays referred to have a weak and greatly 
modified process. They simply follow in the wake of 
black, but with one distinction — on many of them an 
absolutely white filler is used. 



CHAPTER XII 

SPREADING STAIN ON LARGE SURFACES 

THE staining of large surfaces requires much more 
skill than on the smaller broken parts, and even- 
ness is required. No matter what the cabinet 
conditions are, the finishing is supposed to overcome ^^^^^^ must 
these. Woods presenting sap streaks, knotty and o"^ercomeall 
fibrous parts are all to be stained, with the result of a conditions 
general uniformity of color. If the stain was applied 
alike on all parts, the end wood or cross cutting, as 
well as the sap part, would take on a much darker 
color, owing to the different density and different por- 
ous conditions that exist in these portions of the 
wood. 

In resinous woods, the knotty portions as a rule do 
not answer to the stain application and even though 
prepared for staining, they manifest difficulties that 
must be overcome if there is anything like a general 
uniform appearance to be obtained. In quarter sawed 
oaks, and their veneers, the greatest difficulty is with 
the sap. In general cabinet work, the difficulty is 
chiefly in the laying of the woods, and their selection, 
such as laying of white and red oak, side by side, 
second growth and red oak, poorly selected figures; chief dipfi- 
laying the wood '*up-tree" against "down tree," so that ^ulty lies 
when you look at a table top on one board you are inlaying 
looking into the pores, and on the next one, you are of wood 
looking over the pores. If the finisher matches it look- 
ing one way, when he turns the table around, he will 
find that it does not match at all. This is probably the 
greatest difficulty that is encountered in the staining 
of woods. Many an altercation has arisen between the 
finishing department and the glue room where this sort 
of wood joining is performed. 

In order to overcome the difficulties thus enumer- 
ated, let us go back to the most common of all difficulties 
that the stainer encounters — sap streaks. Now that 
woods are becoming rarer the raw material is cut up 



88 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



closer, and the appearance of this unripened portion 
of the wood has to be dealt with : First, for the reason 
that the raw stock costs more money; and secondly, 
because a good deal of money has been put into the 
work before it reaches the finisher. 

The following methods are recommended, and have 
been found from experience to be about all that can be 
done to even up the stain coat: 

In water stains, if, just before the stain is to be 

METHODS OF applied, the sap portion is gone over with a moist 

EVENING UP sponge so that the pores of the wood are partially filled 

COAT STAIN ^vith plain water, then the regular coat of stain in most 

cases can be applied. In woods that are very porous, 

and which take the stain more readily in consequence, 

it may be necessary to dilute the regular stain with 

water. A good deal of this may be controlled by the 

amount of moisture applied with the sponge. Only 

experience can get this down to a nicety. 

In cases where oil stains are to be applied, the same 
process is gone through, but in place of water a coat 
of naphtha or turpentine, or a mixture of the two, and 
in extreme cases the addition of a little japan drier; 
will do the trick. 

In case of spirit stains, it would be simpler to dilute 
the stain, yet the above method may be applied, but 
instead of using alcohol or spirits solely, about 50 
percent of water may be added to the alcohol. 

Another method which could be recommended, and 
which is used a good deal in the larger factories, is as 
follows : A thin glue is prepared, and one man who is 
particularly adapted for detail work, is given the task 
to go over all the sap parts with this thin warm glue, 
which is permitted to dry before the piece reaches the 
regular stainer. This man must know his work thor- 
oughly, for should he put too heavy a coat he would 
create an impervious surface over which the water 
stain would spread and congeal in uneven surfaces 
before it would penetrate the wood. 

On knotty surfaces, which as a rule take dark, and 
which ofttimes present an end grain, the problem as a 
rule is handled in an individual manner. If the knot 
is "dead" and free from resinous matter, the glue-size 



SPREADING STAIN ON LARGE SURFACES 89 

is probably preferable, but where it presents a resinous 
surface, and no water stain would be apt to take, it 
should be sponged with several coats of a one-half to 
one per cent potash solution, then thoroughly sponged 
off with clear water. If still further treatment is 
required, it can be given several coats of alcohol. As 
a rule it will then answer to the stain. 

In cases of veneer, such as crotch mahogany, there 
is considerable danger, by any of these methods, of 

l-^4.- 4.U J -J • -4- 4- U 1 rru J DANGERSOF 

lifting the end gram and causing it to check. The end ^ ,^^,,,^ ,,^,^ 

. . T^ . . ^ LIFTING END 

grain permits the water stain to penetrate down to the qr^in on 
glue coat, and in this manner the veneer, which is veneers 
naturally weak, will raise away from its backing and 
become checked. It is a rather difficult proposition to 
overcome, and have good results without blemishes. 
In the treating of this crotch veneer use a filler made of 
gum shellac and glue, which is melted on a water bath, 
and then thinned with a mixture of oil (boiled linseed) 
and turpentine, to which enough color material is 
added to give it the right one. This is usually an oil 
soluble, red and brown. This filler penetrates the pores, 
or rather the end grain, and goes through to the glue 
coat with which it combines, holding fast the crotch 
veneer. After this is thoroughly dried it is sponged 
off with alcohol which removes the filler from the outer 
fibers of the wood, and leaves the outer surface in a 
condition in which it will receive the stain coat. After 
this precautionary preparation, it only remains for 
the stainer to ascertain the strength of the stain coat 
which is to be applied. 

'^'^ SOME MEANS OF 

Undoubtedly, the reader will ask why not use an corrections 
oil stain, or a spirit stain, on this crotch work. More 
diflficulties arise from the oil stain than are conceded, 
for the solvents used in the preparation of oil stains 
are so foreign in their make-up to the general constitu- 
ency of the glue, and they have the peculiar, "pucker- 
ing effect" on the crotch wood, that checking is bound 
to occur. Spirit stain, as a rule, is not fast to light, 
and again there would be the difficulties of the match- 
ing of either the oil stain or spirit stain with that 
of the water stain, and of getting an oil stain or a spirit 
stain that has the same permanency of color that the 



90 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



SHORTCOMINGS 
OF CABINET 
WORK FIXED 
UP BY 
FINISHER 



water stain would have. The tendency would be that 
the crotch work, so treated, would stand out in relief 
from the rest of the work instead of forming the pleas- 
ing homogeneous, uniform gradation of shades, which 
is so carefully sought. 

It must be understood that these special operations 
are intended to be employed in the production of good 
furniture. In the cheaper grades this detail work to a 
certain degree is prohibitive, owing to the fact that it 
consumes time, and time is money. I often question 
whether the expense of one man to look after and cor- 
rect these deficiencies in the wood would not be recom- 
pensed by an equivalent decrease in the selling ex- 
pense. It is a fact that many shortcomings in cabinet 
construction design are overshadowed by a good fore- 
man finisher who produces a pleasing uniformity that 
covers it all, the same as a good overcoat and hat will 
do for a man. 

In cases where dipping is employed, the sap parts 
will come out strong unless some precaution is taken. 
It has been found that it is almost impossible to over- 
come the differentiation of color when stained by the 
dipping process, and we have yet to find methods other 
than those described that will help us, unless it be the 
employment of the spraying machine, when each indi- 
vidual piece must be handled and looked over just the 
same. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE PENETRATION OF WOOD STAINS 

AFTER the application of a water stain, there will 
be more or less raising of the grain, which will 
necessitate the subsequent sanding usually done 
with No. 00 sandpaper. This is not the case, how- 
ever, where spirit or oil stains are employed. The 
smoothing of the water stain surfaces cannot be done 
by inexperienced help, as they are liable to cut through 
the stain surface. The application of a stain carries 
with it a certain amount of practice. It must be spread getting ready 
evenly, so that there will be no laps in the coat, and for staining 
must be put on heavy enough to penetrate the wood, process 
On the close fibred woods, where it is a difficult matter 
to have the stain penetrate, it is better to give two coats 
of stain to produce the desired depth of color, than to 
attempt to do it with one coat. With two coats of 
stain, usually the one sanding is sufficient. In light 
shades, it is especially recommended that in order to 
get penetration, the stain be applied warm. In woods 
that are resinous, the sponging with an alkali is to be 
recommended, but to avoid the discoloring of the wood 
by the use of an alkali, an ounce of ordinary washing 
soap should be added to the alkaline solution, four 
ounces of sal soda to a gallon of water. Sponge the 
wood with this mixture, allow it to dry, and then 
sponge off with warm water. After this operation, the 
wood is susceptible to the ordinary water stam. 

It is a peculiar fact that when wood is kept in a 
warm place, say 90 degrees F., water stain will pene- 
trate it better than at reduced temperatures. 

Without entering into the details or classification 
of water stains, such as acid, alkaline, or neutral stains, 
being the several mixtures of color materials in water, 
the foregoing procedures are general. It stands to 
reason that on a porous softwood surface, any liquid 
that is applied will penetrate quicker, and in cases of 
this kind, the application of the stain must be done 



92 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



without stopping. The strokes must be carried out 
thoroughly to prevent piling up of color material at the 
end of stroke or at the beginning. The movements 
must be decisive, the brush must carry the stain freely, 
but not overloaded ; that is to say, the brush must carry 
just sufficient stain to fill it so that the natural cohesion 
will not permit the stain to run out of the brush. In 
that way, the setting of the brush onto the work will 
not blot the work where the brush is first applied. 
HOW TO APPLY The exceptions to this rule are cases where the color 

STAIN ON is produced by virtually flooding the work. In a case 

WOOD of this kind it would be better to dip the entire piece 

or its sections, and thus avoid the danger to the glue 
joints and veneers. Where alcohol or oil stains are 
applied the same precautions on soft woods are to be 
followed. Alcohol stains penetrate quickly ; fortunately 
they are not generally used, but they as well as oil 
stains are usually quick of penetration, and their appli- 
cation should be guarded the same as water stains on 
soft \>'oods. No provision is necessary to prepare the 
wood for the application, other than the dusting which, 
of course, it is understood should always be done before 
any stain is applied. 

Alcohol stains should be kept from the light as much 
as possible, and after they have been applied the furni- 
ture should be kept in dark, well ventilated places to 
avoid fading which is apt to take place on these stains 
when subjected to strong daylight, especially sunlight. 
Their permanency depends entirely upon being pro- 
KEEP ALCOHOL tected from the air by an impervious Coat of shellac. 
STAINS FROM This appHcs to oil stains as well. Alcohol and oil stains 
THE LIGHT should not be sanded after they have been applied. It 

is considered they will not raise the grain, and these 
are the strong talking points that the makers of these 
stains put forth to sell them : Easy to apply, no sand- 
ing necessary, and consequently a great saving of labor. 
Great care must be exercised in the application of the 
shellac coat not to lift the stain, and spread it about in 
the shellac coat, as both color materials could again be 
dissolved in the alcohol which is spreading the shellac. 
Every species of wood has a texture peculiar to 
itself. Each is recognized by its own characteristics. 



STAINING IS 
NOT MERELY 
COLORING 



THE PENETRATION OF WOOD STAINS 93 

To retain these is just as essential as it is to color them, 
and if in the staining of this wood the beauty can be 
enhanced and the figures made to stand out, then one 
has accomplished an important thing. It is certainly 
that which constitutes a good stain. A stain coat that 
will obliterate any beauty of the wood, which is appar- 
ent before any finish is put on, cannot be called a good 
stain. To simply color a piece of wood, to change it 
from one color to another, is not what should be called 
staining in good furniture. That should be classed 
as painting. 

The workman must know what kind of a stain will 
bring out the peculiarities of the wood, he should know 
how to take advantage of the fibers, flakes, and pores 
by a treatment with a stain of such reaction that will 
enhance and bring out the sought-for characteristics. 
Take oak, with its simple application of a golden oak 
stain. Note how the center of the flake remains one 
color, surrounded by a circle of a darker shade with a 
corresponding depth of brown in its pores. These same 
characteristics are found in almost every wood. It is 
true, oak is the best example. To maintain the charac- 
teristics of a wood, the stain material must be abso- 
lutely soluble in the vehicle employed. There can be 
no precipitation, or no suspension of color-giving par- 
ticles in the stain. If, by standing, a stain produces 
precipitates, then it should be allowed to stand until 
every particle has settled to the bottom, and the clear 
liquid drawn off. Many times the solubility of a color 
is not understood, or it is affected by other color 
materials employed. The raising of the temperature a known 
few degrees may overcome this, and as long as the 
temperature is maintained, all the material of color 
value may be held in solution, but the grave danger is 
that the workman will permit the temperature to fall, 
and before it is noticed, muddy results have been pro- 
duced. Again, a stain may be produced in the summer 
months, and this diflflculty manifested only in the win- 
ter months. During the day, when the steam is on, and 
the building heated to 72 degrees, the stain may appear 
absolutely clear, but the night may have chilled it, 
and then a complaint is made, ofttimes, when it is 



SOLUBILITY 
OF COLORS 
MUST BE 



GOOD STAIN 
MUST BE CLEAR 



94 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

too late, that the shade is falling off. Again, part of 
that day's work may be done from the first dippings 
from the vat or stock solution, and later on the stain 
may be drawn from that portion which contains the 
precipitate, and naturally, the results are not uniform. 

A good stain must remain absolutely clear at a 
variance of temperature down to 40 degrees F. It is 
not necessary to provide against freezing, as in the 
majority of cases, any stain that will stay in solution at 
40 degrees will have sufficient amount of percentac^e 
solubility in its favor to preclude any precinitation. To 
make this absolutely clear, let us take the following 
example : Suppose we can dissolve a cunful of salt into 
a pint of water, and get a clear solution at 60 degrees 
F. We find by boiling this solution, we can add two 
tablespoons of salt, and still have a clear solution. We 
AT 40 DEC. F. have raised the temperature to 212 in order to main- 
tain the clear solution. We know that at the 60 de- 
grees it was possible to dissolve but one cupful. 

Now M-e will take the boiling hot solution and let the 
temperature fall to 60 degrees and we will find that 
not only has our cupful of salt crystallized out but 
almost another tablespoonful has been added thereto, 
showing us clearly that when a liquid is supersaturated 
by the increase of temperature, we endanger the na- 
tural amount of solid that can be dissolved at the nor- 
mal temperature of 60 degrees. This is the pheno- 
mena of crystallization. In short, when a linuid is 
supersaturated, and precipitation once starts, the re- 
maining solid held in solution is reduced far below the 
normal carrying power of that liquid. 

The reader will say to himself that many of his 
formula^ are given him with directions to boil the color 
material. This is done, usually, for the following rea- 
son: Certain color materials made from an earthy 
or vegetable basis — earths that are treated with chem- 
icals and then allowed to crystallize — give their color 
values to solutions in certain percentatres in direct 
ratio to their component parts. 

Take for example, walnut brown. About 80 per 
cent of this material is of color value, the balance being 
inert matter of a brownish insoluble nature, but so 



THE PENETRATION OF WOOD STAINS 95 

finely divided that to a certain degree it can be carried 
in suspension, but this percentage is dangerous to stain. 
Therefore the formula is built upon the known per- 
centage that it will give off to the water when it is 
boiled, and will remain steadfast after it is allowed to 
cool down to a temperature of 60 degrees, at which 
time it will remain permanent. The insoluble portion 
will slowly settle to the bottom of the vessel, and the 
clear liquid then can be drawn off with absolute assur- 
ance that it will stay clear, and no further precipitation 
will take place. It must not be construed that this 
liquid is of necessity a saturated solution. It merely 
represents that percentage of permanent color taken 
from the original amount of walnut brown. 

Particularly is this of interest just now when much insoluble 
of our furniture is made of Circassian, gum and portions of 
American walnut. For if we do not take care in doing stain must 
away with the insoluble portion of ttiis walnut brown be removed 
stain, the work is apt to become streaked, spotted and 
cloudy from the presence of these insoluble particles. 
It might be well for the artisan to try this experiment. 
After making a solution of walnut brown and pouring 
off the clear liquid, pour out the insoluble dregs of the 
solution onto a blotting paper, cover it with a box so 
that the wind will not blow it away, and when it is 
thoroughly dry, put it on a clean piece of sanded wood 
and rub it across the surface. The results will imme- 
diately show him what this insoluble portion of this 
staining material would do to his work if he did not 
remove it from^ the stain. 

Many of our color-giving materials have their solu- 
bility greatly increased by the addition of a chemical 
or an acid, acidulating the solution and by an excess of 
a few per cents of acid, assuring the continual solution 
of a color-giving material. However, the chemical con- 
struction of stains is to be treated under a separate 
chapter, and. therefore, we will not enter into the de- 
tails here. The foregoing is specifically intended for 
water stains. 

Spirit stains and oil stains represent merely the 
dissolving of spirit soluble or so-called oil soluble 
materials in their respective vehicles. Their absolute 



96 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



NATURE OF 
SPIRIT OIL 
STAINS IS A 
SUSPENSION 



solution in many cases is obtained. But their nature 
has been described as virtually a suspension. Espe- 
cially is thus due to oil stains, for when the oil stain 
is applied, the evaporation of their liquid is so quick 
that the color under a microscope has the appearance 
of having been sprayed, or blown upon the surface 
with a powder blower. In other words, the small oil 
soluble particles, through a peculiar molecular cohe- 
sion, will solidify in minute particles which give a uni- 
form color appearance to the naked eye. Yet owing to 
the quick evaporation of the vehicle do not penetrate 
the wood, but as in spirit stain produce the color by a 
superficial coating of the wood. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

KNOWLEDGE OF VENEERS NECESSARY 

A KNOWLEDGE of veneers is a necessity to the 
finisher working with veneered goods, because 
the problems presented by this class of work, 
and which demand a solution, are numerous and com- 
plex. Many veneer troubles are not discovered until 
the goods are part way through the finishing room, 
and because no one present has the requisite knowl- 
edge to enable him to trace this trouble to its source, 
the finisher finds the responsibility placed at his door, 
and is compelled to confront the problem without any 
hope of finding a solution. 

Many of the troubles which the finisher finds aris- 
ing from veneered work either have their inception in 
the early stages of the veneering process or are the 
result of an inherent weakness in the veneer itself. A 
great amount of fine figured veneer is very scaly. The 
difi^erent layers of fiber have become separated and 
overlap each other loosely like the scales on a fish's 
back. These defects in the veneer may be natural, but 
more frequently they are the result of improper hand- 
ling during the process of cutting. These defects are 
difficult to detect with the naked eye unless one is 
familiar with them; but when one knows what they 
are, they may be detected easily with the aid of a mag- 
nifying glass. Then the proper thing to do is to re- 
ject all such veneer for face work. 

But veneer of this kind quite frequently finds its 
way into the finishing room and is varnished and put 
away to dry. In time the goods are brought out to be 
rubbed, when all over the surface, running along the 
line of the pores, are to be seen innumerable depres- 
sions of hair-like appearance. If the varnish is only 
partly dry these depressions may rub out and not re- 
appear for some time, but if the varnish is thoroughly 
dry these depressions at once ooen out in bold checks. 
Varnish which is not thoroughlv hardened will expand 



MANY VENEER 
TROUBLES ARE 
FOUND BY 
FINISHER 



98 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



TROUBLE WITH 
VARNISH AND 
VENEER 



CHECKS IN 
VENEER ARE 
SERIOUS 



considerably without checking. But after it has lost 
much of its elasticity it will check along the line of the 
scale in the veneer. Everything follows the course of 
least resistance. The continual expansion and contrac- 
tion of the wood, resulting from the frequent atmos- 
pheric changes, make a continual strain along the 
weakest parts of the veneer, which is along the line of 
these scales where the fiber is broken. This strain is 
carried to the varnish along the same line; and when 
the varnish becomes dry and no longer is able to expand 
in unison with the wood, it breaks along the line where 
the strain has been greatest. 

How is one to know whether these checks are in the 
veneer or in the varnish only, is a question that should 
be answered here. If we scrape the varnish off, it is 
quite possible the checks will disappear with the var- 
nish, and nothing wrong will be seen in the veneer. 
This is because the raised edge of the scale has been 
scraped off with the varnish, and the balance lies quite 
flat and smooth. To the finisher who has trouble along 
this line I would suggest that he get a good magnifying 
glass and study the difference in the fiber of different 
veneers. In this way one may soon learn how to de- 
tect defective veneer. But where the finish is checked 
and the cause is in the veneer there is usually a sharp 
raise on one side of the check. If we draw a damp 
sponge over it, this sharp edge raises quickly. This 
never takes place when the finish only is checked. 

Frequently the finisher is brought face to face with 
another and more serious problem resulting from 
checked veneer — serious because the check is not a 
natural weakness in the veneer, and made doubly seri- 
ous bv the further fact that the veneer did not check 
until some time after it had reached the finishing room 
and the goods were partly finished. This problem would 
not be so serious for the finisher, and be much more 
easily solved, were it not for the before-mentioned 
prevailing idea that the cause of the defects must be 
lurking in the immediate vicinity of the place where 
the defects first manifest themselves. 

Everything has a cause, and that cause is itself the 
effect of some other cause ; and one of the first things 



KNOWLEDGE OF VENEERS NECESSARY 99 

the investigator must learn is how to distinguish be- 
tween cause and effect in their relation to each other. 
When veneer checks, it breaks and spoils the finish. 
That is cause and effect. But what caused the veneer 
to check? Shrinking! What caused the shrinking? 
Drying, or the expulsion of moisture. What caused 
the moisture in the veneer? This is the question that 
requires investigation, and in order to get a correct 
answer we may have to pass out of the finishing room 
and trace the veneer back to a time before it was laid. ^^ graced to 
If we do this we may find that no effort had been made laying of 
to keep the veneer dry or make it dry before it was laid, veneer 
And then after it was laid it was rushed off to the 
finishing room without any though of what effect it 
would all have upon the finish. 

If anything like justice is to be done the finishing 
room in the matter of veneered goods, all veneers 
should be re-dried before being laid, and they should be 
laid in such a way that the moisture from the glue will 
not swell the veneer before it is put under pressure. 
If the veneered stock is put into the press before the 
moisture from the glue has had a chance to enter and 
expand the veneer, there will be no trouble from this 
source, provided the veneer was properly dried before 
being laid. Veneer cannot expand under the heavy 
pressure necessary to properly lay veneer. Not only 
this, but when the stock is hastened into the press, 
instead of the veneer taking up the moisture, the hot 
cauls will drive it into the corestock where it can do 
no harm. kesulToTtoo 

The utmost care should be exercised to see that j^ju^h haste 
veneered work is properly and thoroughly dried before 
entering the finishing room. It is a common practice 
in some factories, where trouble with veneer checking 
is experienced, to send the goods into the finishing room 
with instructions to the finisher "to get a coat of some- 
thing on at once to keep them from checking." No 
greater fallacy was ever breathed. If veneered work 
will check if exposed to the air before it is finished, it 
will check after it is finished, no matter how carefully 
the finishing may be done. 

It is true that if heavy lumber in the green state 



100 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



VENEER WILL 
CHECK AFTER 
FINISH IF 
BEFORE IT 



were submitted to a rapid drying process without some 
protection for the surface, the outside would check 
because it was drying and shrinking faster than the 
inside. In the case of drying such lumber it is cus- 
tomary to afford protection to the outside by allowing 
moisture in the surrounding atmosphere until the whole 
substance is heated uniformly through. Then the 
process of drying may be allowed to proceed without 
danger, because it will proceed uniformly throughout 
the whole substance. 

But in the case of veneered work it is a different 
proposition. The inside of the stock is already dry, and 
only the outside is to be made dry, consequently there 
is no advantage in doing anything that will retard the 
drying process. In fact to do so merely means to heap 
up trouble for the future and prolong the day of reck- 
oning — and when that reckoning comes, all accounts 
must be settled with interest. 

As before stated, veneer that will check before it is 
finished will check aftferward, and then it will do it at a 
time when great damage to the finish will result. All 
checked veneer is hard on the finish, but veneer that 
checks after it is finished destroys the finish entirely. 

When veneer goes bad and destroys the finish the 
finisher is confronted with the problem of how best to 
remedy the defect and make the goods pass. To repair 
checked veneered work, such as has been here de- 
scribed, proceed as follows : Rub the varnish down 
with oil and pumice. Oil is preferable to water because 
the latter will get in the checks and increase their size. 
In case of mahogany and other woods that have been 
stained with a waterstain, the water will dissolve the 
stain and leave a faded margin around the check. 

After the varnish has been rubbed down, allow the 
article to stand for a few hours in order that as much 
oil as possible may ooze out of the check. Then apply 
a coat of very thin white shellac. This shellac should 
not be heavier than about one pound of gum to the 
gallon. This must be applied as rapidly and with as 
little brushing as possible, otherwise it will streak with 
the brush ; these streaks will necessitate a lot of work 
sanding them out. If the operator merely brushes it 



KNOWLEDGE OF VENEERS NECESSARY 101 

enough to put it on he will find that it will flow out and 
not leave laps. Shellac as thin as one pound to the 
gallon has very little body, and when the solvent has 
evaporated there is not enough left to make a serious 
lap. But the solvent will cut rapidly into the varnish 
below and if the brush is drawn across it after it has 
become soft from the action of the solvent, it will leave 
ridges. The object of putting on this shellac is two- 
fold: First, to neutralize the oil that may remain in 
the checks, and second to seal the pores of the wood 
surrounding the checks and hold up the varnish better, qn veneer 

After the shellac has been put on, let it dry from 
12 to 24 hours. Sand lightly with very fine finishing 
paper and apply a good coat of varnish. If the checks 
are very fine and not deep, one coat of varnish will 
usually be suflficient, but if the checks are bad, more 
coats will be required. Where only one coat of varnish 
is applied, the utmost care must be exercised in rubbing 
because if the varnish is rubbed through to the old 
varnish below, it will show a patch. 



THIN SHELLAC 
AS FINISHER 



CHAPTER XV 

PROCESS OF STAINING VENEER WORK 

ALL veneered work does not require the same 
treatment preparatory to staining-. Walnut and 
Circassian should be finished with fine sand- 
paper in order to insure a clear finish. These woods 
are usually stained with an oil stain if they are stained 
at all, and therefore no grain or fuzz is raised. But 
if the goods are finished with a coarse sandpaper a fuzz 
will be raised into which the stain will penetrate in 
such quantities as to detract from the clearness of the all veneer 

finish. DOES NOT NEED 

The clear, transparent finish that brings to view all ^^^^ method 
the finer markings of the wood depends almost as much 
on the way in which the wood is prepared to receive the 
finish as on the process of finishing itself. Especially is 
this the case with golden oak and other oak finishes that 
are made with a very dark stain. Not only this, but the 
depth of color can be made to vary by finishing the 
wood with different grades of sandpaper to such an 
extent that one who is not in the secret would believe 
that entirely different stains had been used. The 
coarser the paper used to finish the wood the darker 
will be the effect produced by the stain ; and the finer 
the paper used for the final finishing the more clear 
and transparent may be the finish. This applies to solid 
wood as well as to veneered work. Mahogany, both 
veneered and solid, is seriously affected by the way in 
which it is sanded. ■ 

The process of cleaning up mahogany and other 
woods that are to be stained with a water stain, is 
somewhat different from the process required for 
woods to be stained with an oil stain. Nearly all 
mahogany, and especially African mahogany, is very 
fuzzy and requires the exercise of all the known arts 
to get it perfectly smooth so that it may receive that 
beautiful transparent finish that shows up all the fine 
markings of the wood, which have made this wood so 



104 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



AVOID USE OF 
GLUE SIZE TO 
STIFFEN FUZZ 



SHELLAC WILL 
STIFFEN AND 
HOLD UP FUZZ 



popular. So troublesome has this wood been that many 
schemes, not conducive to the highest quality of finish, 
have been resorted to in order to make it smooth. Some 
have gone so far as to use a thin glue-size on the wood 
to stiffen the fuzz so that it might be cut off with fine 
paper. But this should never be done. No matter how 
small the quantity of glue, it will not all come off with 
the sanding unless one goes deep enough to raise other 
and equally troublesome fuzz, and the stain will lift the 
glue, and both combined will make a murky surface. 

Others again, realizing the danger of the glue-size 
on the one hand, and on the other the danger of the 
filler gathering in this fuzz and making an equally bad 
job if it were not taken off, have left the fuzz on and the 
filler off, and have gone to the extra work and expense 
of applying several extra coats of varnish to fill up the 
pores and insure a clear transparent job. But this is 
no longer necessary. If one will proceed according to 
the following directions, trouble from this source will 
be reduced to a minimum, if not entirely eliminated : 
When the wood is ready for the final sanding moisten 
the surface with clear water, putting it on with a 
sponge. This will raise the fuzz, so that when it 
receives the final sanding with fine paper much of the 
fuzz will be cut off. Then stain the wood. This stain 
will also raise some fuzz, but not so much as was raised 
by the water. After the stain is thoroughly dry apply 
to the wood a coat of very thin shellac, not more than 
one and one-half pounds gum to the gallon of solvent. 
The shellac will stiffen and hold erect whatever fuzz 
remains, and unless the wood is unusually soft and 
spongy will enable one to sand it as smooth as polished 
glass. 

In this sanding, as everywhere else where good 
results are desired, care must be exercised. Very fine 
paper of the best quality should be used for this pur- 
pose. If one sands too deeply the work will have a 
faded appearance in places. To enable one to do the 
work more evenly, especially on large surfaces, a soft 
sandpapering block will be of great assistance. Thick 
felt, such as is used for water rubbing, cut five inches 
long by two wide, makes a fine block- for this purpose. 



PROCESS OF STAINING VENEER WORK 105 

Should any places require sufficient sanding to give 
the spot a faded appearance, apply a second coat of 
stain to the place thus sanded, and wipe it off when 
about half dry. When thoroughly dry apply a coat of 
the thin shellac. In putting on this second coat of 
shellac be careful and cover every spot touched by the 
second coat of stain, otherwise the stain will show up 
unevenly after the piece is finished. 

Permit me here to lay emphasis upon the necessity 
of having this "wash" coat of shellac very thin, other- 
wise it will clog the fibers of the wood surrounding the 
pores and prevent the filler taking a good hold. All 
that is required is a sufficient amount of gum in the 
solvent to hold the fuzz stiffly erect in order that the 
sandpaper may cut it off. 

The writer is aware that in advocating the sponging 
of veneered work with water for any purpose what- 
ever, he is treading upon ground on which have been 
fought many battles between the finishing rooms and 
the veneering departments. In entering upon this field, 
I do so, not for the purpose of conflict, but in the hope 
that many years' experience and very careful observa- 
tion may result in throwing some light upon a very 
vexed question. 

In the first place, I take for granted that the finisher 
who sponges his mahogany veneer before staining is 
anxious to know if sponging is injurious, and is willing 
to discontinue the practice if it can be shown that 
it is so. 

I also take for granted that the veneer man is 
equally desirous of getting at the truth of the matter, 
so as to know whether blisters and other defects which 
develop in veneered work after it reaches the finishing 
room are the result of the practice of sponging, or in 
consequence of some oversight on the part of the veneer 
room, and if the latter, that he may adopt the necessary 
means to prevent a continuance of the defective work. 

The usual cause of trouble from this source are 
"blisters" — the name by which loose veneer is known 
when it raises from the corestock. It frequently hap- 
pens that stock will pass through all the various 
processes from the veneer room to the finishing room 



SANDING TO 
GIVE FADED 
APPEARANCE 



CONTENTION AS 
TO SPONGING 
VENEER 



106 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



"BLISTERS 
IN VENEERS 



CORRECT 

WEAKNESS 
IN VENEER 
EARLY 



without any loose veneer being detected. But almost 
immediately after the goods have been sponged or 
received a coat of water stain, the veneer is seen to 
blister in places, and, of course, the man who has not 
been trained to delve to the bottom of things at once 
comes to a conclusion, based upon a superficial view, 
and says the stain or the sponging caused the blister 
by softening the glue and loosening the veneer. 

That the water used in sponging or staining was 
the immediate cause of the veneer raising in a blister 
there can be no doubt, but it would never have raised 
had it been glued to the corestock. When we look at 
the matter calmly, and without prejudice, we will see 
that it is not a reasonable contention that the quantity 
of water used in sponging or staining could in a few 
minutes penetrate the veneer and glue to such an extent 
that the latter loosens its hold and allows the former 
to raise. And if it cannot do this in a few minutes it 
can never do it because, after a few minutes in the 
temperature of the average finishing room, the moist- 
ure has largely evaporated. Instead of the moisture 
which is still in the wood penetrating deeper to affect 
the glue, it is being drawn out and vaporized by the 
atmosphere. I have heard the argument frequently 
advanced that if veneered work has an inherent weak- 
ness, then everything possible should be done to pre- 
vent this weakness manifesting itself. Here, again, a 
superficial view gives this the appearance of being rea- 
sonable; and it would be a reasonable proposition if 
time alone could heal the defect and strengthen the 
weakness. But such is not the case. Time is against 
it, and if we do not do something to detect these de- 
fects in the early stages of the finishing process, time 
will reveal them for us and do it in a period when it 
will cost considerable to right the wrong. 

If there are those who still believe sponging will 
injure veneered work, here are a couple of experiments 
for them to try : Select a piece of veneered work that 
you are positive is perfectly sound. Sponge this piece 
with water every half hour until you can pull the veneer 
off. By this time I think you will be ready to admit 
that one sponging or one coat of stain will not do any 



PROCESS OF STAINING VENEER WORK 107 

injury to good veneered work that will be perceptible. 

The other experiment is this : Take a veneered 
board and a pail of water. Pour into the pail of water 
a sufficient quantity of stain to give it a deep color. 
This color will enable one to detect the distance it pene- 
trates into the wood. Take a brush or a sponge and 
apply to the veneer a coat of this colored water. Put 
it on heavy, many times heavier than would be done in 
the ordinary course of staining or sponging. After it 
is dry sand or scrape the surface until all signs of the 
stain have disappeared. When this has been done it 
will surprise many to learn what a short distance it 
penetrated into the veneer. One must come to the con- 
clusion that the primary cause of loose veneer is much 
deeper than this. 

We think we have shown that no harm results from 
sponging veneered work, and we might enumerate a 
few of the advantages to be gained from this practice 
in the preparation of both solid and veneered work for 
the finish, apart from the raising of the fuzz. 

Mahogany, with the exception of Cuban mahogany, 
is very soft and easily bruised. It is asking too much 
that this wood pass through all the various processes 
from the dry kiln to the finishing room without receiv- 
ing any bruises. If nothing is done in the process of 
cleaning up this wood to bring these bruises back the 
surface will be cleaned off to a level with the bottom of 
the bruises, and when the stain is applied, if a water 
stain is used, the bruises will swell up and leave raises 
on the wood. If an oil stain is used these bruises will 
not likely manifest themselves until the finishing pro- 
cess has pretty far advanced, perhaps not until they 
have passed through the varnish room and the goods 
are being brought out to rub. During the weeks that 
the goods have been in the finishing room the expansion 
and contraction of the wood caused by atmospheric 
changes have relaxed the tension of the fibers in the 
bruised part, and they have endeavored to resume their 
normal condition, and raise higher than the surround- 
ing fibers, owing to the others having been cut down in 
the scraping or sanding. Had this wood been sponged 
with water some time during the process of cleaning 



EXPERIMENTS 
IN SPONGING 
VENEER 



CORRECTING 
DEFECTS IN 
MAHOGANY 



108 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



BRINGING BACK 
INDENTATIONS 



DEFECTS SHOW 
UP EQUALLY 
WITH BEAUTIES 



up, these bruised parts would have been swelled out to 
their normal condition, and, if too high, they would 
have been cut off to the proper level. 

In cleaning up mahogany or other soft wood that 
has been shaped or run through the sticker, sponging 
is of incalculable benefit. The rapidly revolving knives, 
no matter how sharp or well adjusted they may be, and 
the rollers through which the wood passes, are certain 
to make indentations in the softer woods. Unless some- 
thing is done during the process of cleaning up to bring 
these indentations back, they will show up after the 
goods are finished. 

It is not an uncommon thing to see 0. G. drawers 
and other shaped work, such as rolls of beds and mirror 
frames that have been veneered, showing up these 
regular indentations. These marks are not so pro- 
nounced if the body of the article in question is made 
of some hardwood, such as birch or maple, because 
these woods do not bruise easily. But a great deal of 
veneering is done on whitewood and basswood — woods 
that are very soft ; and, under the mistaken idea that 
the veneer will cover up all defects, no effort is made 
to clean up the core before the veneer is laid. 

In order that goods may be given a good finish at a 
minimum cost in the finishing room, it is imperative 
that everything be right when the goods reach that 
department. The object of finishing is to draw out and 
enhance the natural beauty of the article finished, and 
this can be accomplished only when there is some 
natural beauty to enhance. The same force or power 
that reveals and enhances the natural beauties of the 
wood will show up with equal distinctness any defects 
that may be present. After an article is cleaned up, 
and ready for the finisher, no one can tell whether care 
has been exercised in the preparation of the corebody 
for the veneer. But with each succeeding application 
after the finishing process has commenced there is a 
gradual unfolding, alike of beauties and defects, and it 
is then that any neglect or carelessness on the part of 
the woodworker will manifest itself. 



CHAPTER XVI 

PREPARATION OF CROTCH VENEERS 

CONSIDERABLE trouble is experienced at times 
with crotch veneer that has chipped during the 
cutting. Little particles of the veneer are broken 
out, but it is not advisable to scrape the whole surface 
down to a level with the holes because that would make 
the veneer too thin, and perhaps result in scraping 
through in places. Various methods of filling these 
holes have been tried such as burning shellac gum into 
them. But this plan is not satisfactory because burnt 
shellac is not sufficiently transparent. A number of 
wood finishing supply houses have placed on the mar- 
ket a transparent cement by the aid of which these 
defects in crotch veneer, together with all kinds of 
chips and bruises, may be repaired so perfectly that the 
most careful search will fail to find them after the 
goods are finished. 

The tools necessary for the work are a spirit lamp 
and a knife. Any narrow piece of steel or iron that is 
heavy enough to hold heat for a minute will answer 
the purpose of the knife. The best tool for the purpose 
is made by grinding the edges of a putty knife until the 
end of the blade is about three-eighths of an inch wide. 
It is necessary that a spirit or alcohol flame be used, 
as any other flame will discolor and destroy the trans- 
parency of the cement. room 

The proper place to do the cementing is in the 
cabinet room at the time that the wood is being cleaned 
up. The earlier the defect is discovered and repaired 
the better. The first thing to do is stain the hole with 
some of the stain in which the goods are to be finished. 
Stain will not "take" over this cement, and as the latter 
is transparent, it is necessary to stain the cavity be- 
fore filling, in order that it may have the proper color 
after it is finished. Stain a wide margin around the 
cavity to prevent cement coming in contact with the 
white wood, when putting it in or sanding afterward. 



HOW TO FILL 
HOLES IN 
THE CROTCH 
VENEER 



DO REPAIR 
WORK IN 
THE CABINET 



110 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



WHEN DEFECT 
ESCAPES EYE 
OF CABINET 
MAN 



If the cavity to be filled is not large, the knife should 
be heated over the flame until sufl!iciently hot to melt 
the cement when held to it, and when enough has been 
melted to fill the hole it should be pressed in with the 
knife. If possible, take up a sufficient quantity the 
first time to fill the hole, because if the first lot becomes 
hard before the second lot is put in, a perfect union 
between the two lots may not take place, and the last 
lot may chip off. 

If the hole is large a better way would be to hold 
the lamp on its side and bring the cement in direct 
contact with the flame and as the cement melts allow 
it to drop into the cavity until the latter is full. When 
cooling, but while yet in a soft, pliable condition, the 
cement should be pressed firmly into the cavity to 
insure it obtaining a firm hold of the wood, and to 
destroy any air bubbles that may have formed. When 
the cement is hard, cut off the surplus with a sharp 
chisel and sandpaper. 

But it sometimes happens that defects of this kind 
escape the attention of the man cleaning up the wood, 
and are not detected until they reach the finishing room 
and receive a coat of stain. When that happens, the 
better way would be to allow the goods to proceed until 
they have received a coat of varnish. If an effort were 
made to remedy the defect at this stage, it might result 
in making matters worse by cutting or sanding into the 
stain. If it is delayed until a coat of varnish has been 
applied it may be proceeded with without danger from 
this source. But when sanding over the varnish, a 
little linseed oil or benzine should be used to prevent 
the sandpaper burning or scratching the varnish. 

A good alcohol lamp may be made from an ordinary 
machine oil can. Cut off the end of the spout leaving 
only about one and one-half inch of the larger end. 
Ordinary cotton twine may be folded up to make a 
wick, if nothing better is at hand. 

When using the lamp do not allow the knife or the 
cement to come in contact with the wick, because if the 
wick becomes dirty it will smoke and smudge the 
cement and destroy its clearness. 



CHAPTER XVII 

DIPPING OR TANKING STAINS 

DIPPING or tanking stains, that is, immersing the 
material to be colored, is found to be expedient 
in many lines of manufacture, such as in fac- 
tories where small parts are used, or where small staining by 
pieces are manufactured, toys, checkers, piano and dipping is 
typewriter keys, handles, and all similar parts. These ^^^^° method 
can be colored much more uniformly and cheaper when 
subjected to the dipping process. 

Considerable uniformity can be maintained pro- 
vided certain basic facts relative to the material are 
employed. Spraying will produce the same effect until 
the stain is completely consumed; this cannot be said 
for a dipping stain. The dipping method is an eco- 
nomical method as far as labor is concerned, and a 
speedy method where the articles dipped are not too > 
large. The one difficulty, and the one question that is 
sought to be cared for, are the methods to keep the 
stain of uniform strength throughout the manipula- 
tion, so that the last piece dipped will have the same 
color as the first piece. 

It is a peculiar fact that one color, that is, one color 
material, may have a greater affinity for the wood than 
another. Thus it is this particular component is ex- colons have 
hausted much quicker than some of the others, so that 
after a dipping stain has been used for some time, fqr woods 
the shade is so gradually changed it is not noticed at 
the time, but when the first piece is compared with the 
last piece there is quite an appreciable difference. In 
many things that are dipped, such as stepladders, 
handles, toys, this may not make much difference, but 
in furniture it should not be the case, and, by the simple 
methods which will be given, can be avoided. Suppos- 
ing a man were dipping children's furniture, and a 
hundred sets were to be run through. Naturally the 
little table would go first, then possibly the chairs next. 
It might so happen that a fair degree of uniformity 



112 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



LESS VEHICLE 
ABSORBED ON 
HARDWOOD 



would result, but unless the stain is kept up to standard 
some parts of that set are very apt to be lighter, that 
is, of a lighter shade than those dipped at first. 

Another peculiarity of dipping stains is the fact 
that on hardwood the color will exhaust proportion- 
ately quicker than on soft woods. This, because of the 
fact that on the hard woods less vehicle is absorbed 
than on the soft wood. In clipping a soft wood the 
vehicle penetrates farther but leaves color particles 
more on the outside. While it is not absolutely correct 
to say "color particles," it is nevertheless the case, and 
of interest to note that the moisture precedes the color. 

Dipping stains are usually made of oil, or water as 
a vehicle. By oils is meant turpentine, benzoles, and 
the various naphthas. To those not acquainted with the 
dipping proposition it might be well to say that it is a 
quick way and a very good way. The care taken is pro- 
portionate to the quality of the material manufactured. 
Cheap goods are simply dipped and passed along on a 
draining board which permits the excess stain to run 
back into the tank. Better goods should be wiped clean 
to avoid runs. It ofttimes may be necessary to make a 
dipping stain a trifle stronger than where it is applied 
with a brush. It will be seen usually that this is neces- 
sary because the stain is not worked in. 

If it is a water stain, many may have misgivings as 
to the effect on veneers and glue joints. These can be 
dispelled easily because the article is simply immersed, 
and immediately withdrawn, and in these cases, a hot 
dipping stain, when made of water, is better than a cold 
STRONGER THAN dipping stain. First, it penetrates more readily, and 
BRUSHING second, it dries quicker. The wiping off on hardwood 

especially is to be recommended to overcome any pos- 
sible air cells or patches that might not be covered 
when the immersion is done quickly. Thus it would 
tend to make a uniform job. It must be remembered, 
however, that a stain applied cold will not give as dark 
a color as one that is annlied hot. for it is readily un- 
derstood that the hot mixture nenetrates deeper and in 
consequence deposits more color. 

In a water stain it does not matter what shade or 
what kind of wood is to be dipped, it is merely a case 



DIPPING STAIN 
SHOULD BE 



DIPPING OR TANKING STAINS 113 

of establishing the strength in accordance with the 
method to be employed ; that is, whether it is going to 
be used cold or whether it is to be kept warm by a 
steam coil or a steam jet. One thing is certain, a stain 
should be kept at uniform temperature so that the 
penetration is uniform. 

Again, the material to be dipped should be of uni- 
form temperature. Raw material should not be stored 
in a cold room and then brought in to be dipped. There ^^^^^ should 
would be some disappointment, especially on hardwood, g^ j^^p^ 
if this were undertaken. A steam jet in a large vat even in 
works satisfactorily but not so well in a small vat. temperature 
There is a certain amount of condensation which adds 
materially to the amount of water. A certain amount 
of water follows steam, and if the pressure is low, 
there is apt to be quite an amount of water added to 
that in the vat. The diminishing of the water by the 
dipping process is carried on in a direct ratio with 
the color materials, and these can be kept up to stand- 
ard as we will shortly see. 

Consider an oil stain. For example a golden oak, 
the color of which depends largely upon asphaltum 
varnish, oil yellow and oil black. It will be noticed 
that the yellow on many woods gradually will become 
less noticeable; in short, it is exhausted quicker than 
either the black or the asphaltum component. If it is 
desired to keep the oil stain warm it can be done by 
means of a steam coil, and on good furniture it is more 
necessary to wipe than on cheaper materials. Where it 
is to be wiped clean the stain should be stronger or the use of 
the immersion longer. Manufacturers of asphaltum asphaltum 
varnish of late have been selecting their material so 
that a richer and more golden color is obtained than 
heretofore. It is sold as asphaltum varnish for mak- 
ing golden oak stain. Some call it standardized asphal- 
tum, which name covers the two requisites of the mate- 
rial for producing stains: First, the color, and sec- 
ondly, a uniformity of strength, so that a given amount 
of asphaltum will always have the same color value as 
the preceding lot. The maker of stains has simoly to 
specify what he wishes this asphaltum for, and he can 
readily find it in the market. 



114 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



SOME OPPOSE 

DIPPING 

METHODS 



TESTING FOR 

UNIFORM 

COLOR 



Now that the two colors, here referred to, have 
doubled and trebled in price, it might be of financial 
interest to those using golden oak stain to investigate 
this method of producing it. Those who are makin? 
the grayish cast of golden oak will find that the asphal- 
tum with the black will give them the desired results. 
Any innovation in a method meets with a certain 
amount of opposition by those who have been follow- 
ing a beaten path. All kinds of criticisms are. heaped 
upon the idea. The spraying machine is an example. 
No new method ever received such a chilly reception 
as did that. Unquestionably, if one would suggest to 
a factory which never did any dipping, to dip its work, 
the same reception would be in store for the method. 

It is not claimed that everything and anything can 
be dipped. Common sense tells us that. But there are 
hundreds of small pieces manufactured that can be sub- 
jected to the dipping process at quite a saving of time 
and labor, with probably better results than where an 
attempt is made to do the staining with a brush. 
Brushes cost money these days. 

Undoubtedly fault will be found at once as to the 
possibility of keeping a general uniformity of color, 
but this is easily handled in the following manner. 
When the strength has been ascertained, the vat pre- 
pared, either for oil or water stain, and all the tests 
have proven that the first immersion gives the desired 
color, the standard is then kept by proceeding as fol- 
lows : 

A cylindrical vat is filled with the original liquid, 
or a large test tube would make a very practical con- 
tainer, securely corked and labeled as the standard. 
Strong solutions of known strength are prepared of 
the diff'erent components of the stain. Then we proceed 
to dip, and after the process is continued a sample is 
removed from the vat and compared with the original. 
If it has fallen off at all, it will be noticed immediately 
when held up to the light. A delicate test is to watch 
the effect of a few drops of this material on a clean 
blotter. It will be noticed that as it spreads on a blot- 
ter the different colors will form a circle, the stronger 
color penetrating out into the blotter farther than the 



DiPPING OR TANKING STAINS 115 

weaker color. These rings will tell you at once by com- 
parison which color is exhausted the most. 

From these comparative tests we realize that the 
stain is not up to the original test. Although the work 
being dipped may not yet manifest the discrepancy, 
the stain having run down, the balance left in the vat 
can be brought up to standard. The sample taken from 
the vat is carefully measured out in a cylinder, and the 
quantity in the tank figured up. The tanks are usually ^^^^^ ^^^ ^p 
square, and by ascertaining the amount of cubic inches, ^^ original 
dividing this by the amount of cubic inches in the gal- ^^g^ 
Ion, the number of gallons in the tank is established. 
Granted that our cylinder holds a pint, this is brought 
up to strength by adding from our standard solution 
stock enough of each color so that by comparison with 
the solution in the thin tube the color is identical. Then 
if the amount has been carefully kept track of, that is, 
the amount of the solution added to the pint, and is 
multiplied by eight, there being eight pints to the gal- 
lon, and this multiplied by the number of gallons in the 
tank, the amount of stock solutions to be added is 
given. This added to the liquid in the vat will bring 
up the stain to its original strength. 

This is not a long procedure, nor is it a difficult one ; 
in fact, it is an interesting problem for the foreman 
finisher. The same proposition will confront him when 
he comes to increase the amount of stain in the vat. 
Take a vat of 25 gallons; when it runs down so that 
it no longer covers the materials that are to be dipped, ^^^ ^^ ^^ 
the quantity of stain will have to be increased. It interesting 
might be an easy matter to simply make up another problem 
batch of stain and fill the vat to the required depth; 
but when a stain has been used so long that the quan- 
tity is reduced — where the tank needs filling — it is 
apt to fall below par, and before adding new stain to 
it, it first should be brought up to strength. I know 
of no stain that becomes stronger in the dipping pro- 
cess, but should such a proposition arise, it is an easy 
matter to reduce it by the addition of more vehicle. 

An oil stain containing much naphtha is of more 
or less danger owing to its vapors, and an open blaze 
should not be permitted in close proximity, nor should 



116 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



DANGER OF 
OIL STAINS 
WITH NAPHTHA 



STAINING BY 
IMMERSION 



an open flame be on any floor below a dipping vat 
where oil stains are employed. Naphtha vapors are 
heavier than air and follow the floor rather than rise 
to the ceiling. Naphtha vapor will run along the floor, 
following a current of air down an elevator shaft and 
to a fire room, and in this manner a sudden blaze may 
be caused. Good circulation is necessary, and should 
be of such strength that the vapor is brought out of 
doors in the shortest possible time. When the vat is 
not in use, provision should be made to draw off the 
oil stain into air-tight cans, for if allowed to stand any 
length of time, enough of the light oils may evaporate 
to cause a material change of color. 

Small pieces for staining can be handled in baskets 
or cages that can be closed, made of wire, the mesh 
just small enough so that the pieces will not fall 
through. This wire cage is immersed in the tank, 
and worked up and down, so that the liquid penetrates 
and touched all pieces. It is then pulled up and swung 
over onto the dripping board which leads back to the 
tank. Where the stain is hot, it will be found the pieces 
are practically dry in a few minutes. The basket is 
opened and the contents dumped onto the upper end of 
the dripping board from which it readily can be re- 
moved in a few minutes, without the dye being affected 
in any way. This dripping board acts as a drying 
board, from which the stained pieces can be shoved 
into carts for the next operation. In case of caster 
wheels, or small parts that are to receive a polish, 
directions will be found in this book for producing an 
inexpensive polish by tumbling them. 



A 



CHAPTER XVIII 

IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF FILLER 

FTER the preparation of the wood, through the 
sanding and sponging process, the next step is 
filling. Proper filling of the wood is as im- 



FILLING AN 



portant as any one of the details that go to make the 

£ . , IMPORTANT 

finish. 

PROCESS 

It might be said that all woods are filled, modified, 
however, by stating some are filled with a liquid filler, 
some with an absolutely transparent filler, and others 
with a paste filler. Woods like gum and Circassian 
walnut come in the class of transparent fillers, by which 
is meant oil, shellac, or one of the many modern prod- 
ucts of the varnish factory. Before the discovery of a 
filler, repeated coats of drying oil were rubbed into the 
wood. 

Then came the era of shellac. The finisher should 
remember that while shellac makes a very admirable 
first coat finish, it should always be applied thin, as it 
does not form the best adhesion either to the wood or 
the subsequent coats of varnish. 

When shellacs are used with the idea of constituting 
a filler coat, they should be applied thin, two thin coats 
being preferred to one heavier coat, and should be 
sanded smooth. The wood then will be ready for its paste filler 
subsequent finish. On porous woods, it is better to use po^ porous 
a paste filler, preferably made from a floated silex woods 
base, than either a shellac or liquid filler. The object 
is to fill the pores with material that will neither ex- 
pand nor contract through the different temperatures, 
or atmospheric conditions. 

Here let it be understood that experience has taught 
us that any vegetable, such as the various starches, 
which have been used in years gone by, is a mighty 
poor filler at the best. Whiting, China clay, resins, 
lime or flour should not be considered up-to-date mate- 
rials. For let it be understood that a good filler is 
made up of something that neither shrinks nor absorbs 



118 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



GOOD FILLER 
MUST BE ONE 
IMPERVIOUS 
TO WATER 



FOREMAN MUST 

UNDERSTAND 

FILLERS 



any of the vehicle that may be used to spread it and 
hold it to place, it must be impervious to water. Tem- 
perature should have little or no effect. It must be a 
material heavy enough in specific gravity to obviate the 
carrying with it of air cells into the crevices or pores 
of the wood. These air cells will afterward permit the 
settling of the filler. The entire finishing process will 
be completed before this will manifest itself. To the 
writer's mind, there is nothing that will take the place 
of floated silex. 

The addition of color material should be only of 
such quantity as absolutely necessary to produce the 
shade desired, and in such cases colors ground in oil 
are preferable, as the grinding process intimately mixes 
the oil with the color particles of the pigment employed, 
and in such case reduces the bulk of the color to the 
minimum. Compactness of a filler is the desired object. 

Liquid fillers, such as those made up of oils and 
resins, into which have been ground various earthy 
products, are on the market, and usually found in paint 
stores, either as natural or colored, according to the 
woods and finishes for which they are desired. They 
are neither a liquid filler nor a paste filler, but might 
be said to be the paste filler thinned, ready for the 
brush, when stirred. 

These fillers are adapted to many cases of finishing, 
where the artisan has not the material at hand with 
which to prepare his own filler. In the larger plants it 
is necessary for the foreman to thoroughly understand 
the coloring and preparation of the filler for the par- 
ticular finish that is being produced. 

In this treatise, with each stain formula given there 
will be found an indication of how to color the filler 
for each particular finish, which, together with this 
general outline of fillers, will enable the reader to com- 
prehend and understand the procedure he should fol- 
low. 

That the filler plays a large part in the production 
of the color effect, especially in the oaks, is known to 
every finisher. Filler must be in harmony with the 
stain, but if it is too radical in shade, it becomes freak- 
ish and, when the wood mellows down, shows that it 



IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF FILLER 119 

is not a part of the staining operation, but it is apparent 
it is applied to the wood in solid form and, in short, 
does not affiliate itself with the general desired results. 

In such finishes as antique oak, Flemish, bog, mala- 
chite green, forest green, cathedral, Early English, 
Antwerp, Belgium, baronial, Dutch brown, English oak, 
golden oak, tobacco brown, silver oak, gray oak, kaiser 
grey, oriental, sixteenth century, drift wood and others, 
the filler plays an important part in the results. 

Each and every one *is produced to harmonize in 
color effect with the general style of the finish. It is 
not uncommon, especially in matching products of other 
finishers, to have the correct match as far as the stain 
is concerned, only to ruin all the efforts by making the 
wrong colored filler. It is well for the artisan to have 
a small magnifying glass with which to thoroughly in- 
spect the filler of the sample that he is trying to match. 

Under the chapter Hatchings, and in the procedure 
there given, will be found valuable hints on how to 
recognize the color in a sample of finish brought in for 
matching. 

It will easily be seen that it is absolutely essential 
to have a knowledge of the procedure necessary for the 
production of a good, reliable filler. Leaving aside the 
question whether it is best from a financial standpoint 
to buy the silex filler in paste form or to buy it in the 
dry form, the artisan should know how to proceed to 
prepare his filler for any particular style of finish. 

In cases where the paste filler is at hand, as stated 
before, stir in colors ground in oil, such as recom- 
mended and such as were found to produce the desired 
shade of filler. When the dry silex is to be used, stir 
into the silex boiled oil and turpentine of sufficient 
quantity to make a homogeneous paste of the consis- 
tency of a very heavy paint. Then the color is thinned, 
generally using nothing but turpentine. When this is 
so you can pour it out of the can, stir it into the paste 
filler until the same becomes of a uniform color, a ho- 
mogeneous mass, when it is ready for thinning with 
naphtha. 

Filler should be stirred continually when being ap- 
plied. It should be rubbed crosswise of the pores. 



FILLER MUST 
BE IN HARMONY 
WITH STAIN 



USE OF SILEX 
IN FILLERS 



120 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



PREPARATION 
OF FILLERS 



MINERAL 

TURPENTINE 

ECONOMICAL 



When filler in drying settles in the pores it is an indi- 
cation it has been thinned too much. If filler lifts, when 
wiping off, it is an indication that not sufficienl: binder 
is in the mixture. In that case the addition of a half 
pint of japan to the gallon of filler will overcome the 
diflficulty. In the preparation of filler for such finishes 
at Antwerp, bog oak, Flemish, Belgium, Early English, 
a black filler only is employed. This requires nothing 
more than drop black, ground in oil. Drop black is 
much superior to lampblack, and it is only necessary 
to use quantity required to give the silex a black color. 

In such finishes as baronial, cathedral, Dutch brown 
and sixteenth century, the fillers are usually colored 
with Van Dyke brown. The same effects can be pro- 
duced, however, by using burnt umber and toning it 
down with black, or black and an orange, but the most 
economical that we have is a Van Dyke. 

It will thus be seen that the majority of fillers on 
the oaks are made with black or brown, the only differ- 
ence being that the strength of color varies. In the 
greens, chrome green is employed. In the case of forest 
green, equal parts of chrome green and drop black are 
used, and in some cases a small percentage of brown. 
In the olive oak, which is another finish that is used 
more by chair manufacturers and fixture concerns, the 
green is produced by the stain, but the filler is black. 

In general, the use of silex, colored to match the 
style of finish, and thinned with naphtha, is a general 
procedure. Where large quantities of filler are miade 
and used, a saving can be made by the employment of 
mineral turpentine, which costs about one-third as 
much as regular turpentine. Where this is employed 
it is well to use about four ounces of cheap rosin var- 
nish so as to keep up the binding qualities that would 
be had where boiled oil and regular turpentine were 
employed. 

Silex might be likened to powdered glass. Spread 
over the surface and into the pores by means of the 
liquid vehicle, which has just sufficient adhesiveness to 
hold the filler in place, there can be no shrinkaee in 
the material. When the work is cleaned up, the excess 
moisture removed and the filler thoroughly dried, it 



IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF FILLER 121 

holds its place and form, and the subsequent finish re- 
mains where it is put. 

The present style of the many so-called Mission 
finishes calls for a light colored filler, especially in oaks, 
the pores of which have been extended by the wood 
having been first sponged, sanded and the pores opened 
with a picking brush. The effects produced by giving 
the fillers various shades ranging from absolute white 
through all the grays, greens and browns, are in many 
cases very pleasing to the eye. The gray oaks lend p^j^^gj^^g 
themselves particularly well for this sort of treatment, demand light 
These finishes are known under many different names, fillers 
but are usually finished in waxes. The best procedure 
is to use a strong water stain which will give the color 
deep enough so that when the lighter filler is used 
there will be some difference between the stained wood 
and the color of the filler. The effect is striking; a 
good clean job will not permit the filler to be smeared 
over the wood. Where an absolute white filler is de- 
sired, and where the wax is to be the finish, it is well to 
give the work a very thin coat of shellac, and then mix 
carbonate of zinc, known to the trade as zinc white, 
with wax, and rub it across the pores until they are 
thoroughly filled. Let this work stand for 24 hours, 
then apply second coat of wax, bringing it to a polish. 

Where a gray filler is desired this same procedure 
can be followed, merely coloring the white with dried 
drop black. 

Filler should be applied only after the wood has 
been thoroughly prepared, sandpapered, cleaned up apply filler 
and dusted. Emphasis to be placed upon the "cleaned ^fter wood is 
up," which means that no finger marks from previous "cleaned up" 
handling should be allowed to remain. It should be 
dusted so that all the fine particles arising from the 
sanding are removed before the filler is applied. 

The filler should be of the consistency of a varnish, 
applied with a good brush, rubbed well into the grain 
and pores of the wood. W^hen the filler is fairly well 
set, which is when it begins to show flat, rub it into the 
wood with a pad, always rubbing across the grain. 

For spindles and long turniners have a long strip 
of leather to draw back and forth around the work. 



122 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



P^INISHING 
SHOULD BE 
DONE ACROSS 
GRAIN 



Fill only as much surface at a time as you can wipe off 
before it sets too hard to rub off without rolling up. 
Wipe off with tow or excelsior or rags all the filler ex- 
cept that which is in the grain or pores, and be care- 
ful to have all the grain and pores level, full of the fille" 
because upon that feature the success of your, work 
depends. All rubbing and wiping must be done across 
the grain. Give the filler all the time to dry you can, 
but never less than 6 hours, especially when the grain 
is rather open. When dry go over it lightly with No. 
sandpaper to take off every particle of filler left on the 
surface. The cleaner you wipe off the filler the cleaner 
the finished job will be. 

If you want to do high grade work it is well to ex- 
amine the filler surface with a magnifying glass to see 
if the pores are well filled and no pinholes visible. If 
there are such defects, it is best to go over the surface 
with a filler a second time, but have it of thinner con- 
sistency than at first, and repeat the operation of rub- 
bing, wiping off and sandpapering. 

An exception to the general rule of filling, and it 
might be said of staining, is that of the production of 
golden oak, as employed by many of the larger furni- 
ture factories, showcase and school equipment com- 
panies. The stain is produced by the use of asphaltum 
varnish, augmented by the addition of oil soluble black 
and yellow as will be found in the chapter on Stain 
Formulas. 

This stain is spread over the sanded and dusted 
work in such an amount as to leave an almost black- 
brown coating, which is permitted to set from 15 to 30 
minutes, according to the amount of drier that the 
stain contains. It should not be permitted to dry, but 
just before it sets a natural filler, that is, a plain un- 
colored silex filler, is worked across the grain of the 
wood. It gradually lifts the excess stain and gradually 
with the filler is worked into the pores. This process 
is continued until the filler is about to set. When it is 
cleaned off the filler is colored, the pores and grain are 
thoroughly filled, and golden oak is stained and filled 
with an oil stain with this procedure. 

After the cleaning process is accomplished a thin 



IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF FILLER 123 

coat of shellac is applied, and the finishing coats are 
given. 

Bent wood, such as chair backs, seats, etc., which 
have been subjected to the steaming process, may give 
trouble which would manifest itself in the filler coat. 
This is due to the fact that wood treated in this man- 
ner, when not properly stored, is apt to re-absorb mois- 
ture, and, after the filler is applied, permit a settling 
of this filler, through the fact that as the moisture 
leaves the work the filler follows down into the wood, bent wood 

When difficulty like this manifests itself the first gives some 
thing to do is to look up the history of the stock, and trouble in 
the condition in which it is received. Take a suspected finishing 
sample, see that it is thoroughly dry, and put it through 
the regular process. This will prove whether or not 
moisture has caused the difficulty with the filler. 

The universal method for finishing cedar chests 
does not call for a filler. But there seems to be a de- 
mand for a filler that will take care of the rough spots 
in the knotty portions of the wood. The desire prin- 
cipally is to get one that will harmonize with the shade. 
For this purpose Van Dyke brown and rose pink will 
give the best colors with which to color the natural 
filler. Where bits of wood have been pulled out by 
rough planing, colored shellac serves nicely, and if the 
depressions or holes are large enough to warrant the 
use of shellac sticks, it is preferred to melt the shellac 
into the crevices. Another method would be to work 
into the rough spot a colored shellac, colored with Bis- „g™g shellac 
mark brown, giving the work repeated coats until a xo fill holes 
smooth surface is obtained. Then sand this to the even- jj^ finishing 
ness of the regular work in the following manner : 

Cut down the shellac with a No. sandpaper and 
finish up by using a No. 00 sandpaper which has been 
dipped into light rubbing oil. This will not disturb the 
underlying depressions, and will give a toughness to 
the shellac used as a filler, which will keep it in its 
place, and leave it ready for the general finishing coat. 

The following list will give the artisan a good idea 
of the colors necessary to obtain certain shades, espe- 
cially in producing tints in the fillers. Undoubtedly 
the list given will be of additional value to the informa- 



124 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



tion already given with each formula, in which also is 
mentioned the filler. Produce the color first and then 
with it tint the filler. It is best to obtain colors ground 
in oil or japan. Mix these and stir into the filler. In 
case the ^ry silex is used in producing the filler it may 
be well to use dry colors. Stir them thoroughly into 
the silex and add to it the japan, boiled oil and thin- 
ner, as given elsewhere: 

COMBINATIONS Combinatlons of Products 

PRODUCE CER- Red and black Brown 

TAIN SHADES Lake and white Rose 

White and brown Chestnut 

White, blue and lake Purple 

Blue and lead color Pearl 

White and carmine Pink 

Indigo and lampblack Silver Gray 

White and lampblack Lead color 

Black and Venetian red Chocolate 

White and green Bright green 

Purple and white..... French white 

Light and dark green Dark green 

White and green.. Pea green 

White and emerald green.. Brilliant green 

Red and yellow... Orange 

White and yellow. Straw color 

White, blue and black.. Pearl gray 

White, lake and vermilion Flesh color 

Umber, white and Venetian red Drab 

White, yellow and Venetian red Cream 

Red, blue and black... Olive 

Yellow, white and a little Venetian red. ...Buff 



CHAPTER XIX 



THE MAKING AND USING OF FILLER 



THAT which is known as filler in the finishing 
room is a paste used for the purpose of filling 
the pores of the wood to be finished. The object 
of filling these pores is to prevent the varnish sinking 
away and enable it to flow out smooth and make an 
even surface. Fillers are made in various ways, of 
various ingredients to suit the different kinds of wood 
on which they may be used. But there are three in- 
gredients which enter into all fillers and which form 
the base for all the others. These three ingredients 
are : Pigment, oil and drier. The best known pigment 
for filler today is ground silex. 

There are various other pigments in use, such as 
silica, silver white, and I have known good filler to be 
made with wheat flour and cornstarch as a pigment. 
It has been contended in some quarters that wheat flour 
and cornstarch, being vegetable products, are liable to 
decompose in the pores and thus destroy the finish. 
But I do not believe that contention to be well founded. 
The wood itself is a vegetable product and the oil that 
binds the pigment together is of the same origin. Why 
should one be more liable to decomposition than the 
other, especially as the pigment is protected by being 
surrounded by the oil? I have seen goods that were 
filled over a quarter of a century ago with a flour-corn- 
starch filler today showing no signs of decay in the 
filler. 

For oak filler silica makes a good pigment and it is 
economical. It is much less expensive than silex and 
considerably lighter in weight. 

For walnut and mahogany woods that are somewhat 
easily clouded, pure ground silex should be used as a 
pigment for the filler because it is more transparent, 
and, therefore, less liable to leave the slightest sign of a 
cloud, Silex is offered in various degrees of fineness, 
but the finer it is the better. It not only is more trans- 



INGREDIENTS 
FOR FILLERS 
ARE THREE 



FILLER IS 
DETERMINED 
BY WOOD 



126 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



OIL BINDS 
PIGMENT 
SOLIDLY 



BROWN JAPAN 
BEST DRIER 
FOR FILLER 



parent when fine, but it is easier to use and does its 
work better. 

Oil is the ingredient that binds the fine particles of 
pigment together so that when dry they form a solid 
substance. Boiled linseed oil is usually the kind use'^ 
for this purpose, although raw linseed oil may be used 
with good results. A considerable quantity of linseed 
oil on the market today is adulterated, and care should 
be taken to see that only pure linseed oil is used. These 
adulterated oils contain quantities of fish oil or some 
sort of mineral oil. These adulterants prevent proper 
hardening of the linseed oil and the drying of the filler, 
and unless the filler, which is the foundation of the fin- 
ish, dries and hardens thoroughly, a high class durable 
finish cannot be expected. Recently I was shown an in- 
side door which was painted ten years ago with a paint 
mixed in adulterated oil, and it is not yet dry. In 
warm, humid weather the best that can be said of it is 
that it is dust proof. Varnish cannot harden on such 
a foundation, and if it is polished it will lose its bril- 
liancy in a few days. 

The third ingredient of which we spoke is some 
form of drier. Linseed oil will dry of itself, but is is 
too slow. Brown japan is the most popular form of 
drier for filler. It also helps the oil to bind the par- 
ticles of pigment together. But filler in which japan 
is used ought not to be made very far in advance of the 
time it is used. All filler should be made at least 24 
hours before being used, but if it is allowed to become 
old and stale it works sticky and hard, and will not fill 
the pores properly. If I were asked to set a time limit 
in which filler is at its best I would say between 24 
hours and 10 days after it has been made. This is one 
of the advantages of the finisher being able to make his 
own filler — he can always have it in the best condition. 
The argument is advanced frequently that the finisher 
cannot successfully make his own filler because he has 
not the powerful machinery for grinding and mixing 
the ingredients. He does not need it. No matter who 
makes the filler, or where it is made, the pigment is 
ground and the oil extracted before the process of 
making filler commences. These are occupations by 



NECESSARY IN 
FILLER MAKING 



THE MAKING AND USING OF FILLER 127 

themselves, separate and distinct from filler making. 
In addition to the proper ingredients, the only require- 
ments for filler making are a tub, a pair of hands and 
the "know how." If a finishing room were using filler 
by the ton it might be well to use a power mixer cap- 
able of handling it in such quantities. But the quan- 
tity used in the great majority of factories can be 
mixed readily by hand. 

I have heard it said that a filler cannot do its work 
well and work easy. I wish to hit that right on the "know how" 
head, and say that a filler cannot do its work well un- 
less it does work easy. Filler that is stiff and hard is 
certain to pull out of the pores when being cleaned off ; 
while filler that will clean off easy, if otherwise prop- 
erly prepared, will cut off level with the top of the pore, 
leaving it full. The proper kind of a filler is one that 
may be cleaned off easily between 20 minutes and three 
hours after it is applied to the wood, and will dry in 24 
hours and thoroughly harden in 48 hours. 

In addition to the pigment, oil and drier which 
form the base of all fillers, there are other ingredients 
added to meet the color requirements of the different 
woods and finishes, except when a colorless filler is de- 
sired, as these other ingredients are added for color 
purposes. 

To make a white filler, which may be used by itself 
where a colorless filler is required, and which may be 
regarded as the base of all the colored fillers, we will 
give the system which we have followed for years with 
entire satisfaction, and which is the result of many 
years' careful observation and experiment: 
12 parts pure boiled linseed oil. 
6 parts brown japan. 
1 part pure turpentine. 

Mix the above thoroughly, then add a sufficient 
amount of silex, or whatever pigment is to be used, to 
make a stiff dough. Allow this to stand for 24 hours, 
then reduce such quantity as may be needed for imme- 
diate use with benzine to the consistency required for 
the wood on which it is to be used. 

In the above formula the turpentine is added to 
assist in the more complete assimilation of the oil and 



IDEAL WHITE 
FILLER 



128 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



CARE NEEDED 
TO KEEP 
PIGMENT 
UNIFORM 



REDUCING 
PASTE FILLEf 
TO A LIQUID 



japan, and prevent the disintegrating effect which the 
benzine would otherwise have upon the japan. 

It will be noticed that I have not given the quantity 
of pigment in weight. This cannot be done to advan- 
tage because the ratio of weight to measure or absorb- 
ing quality is not the same with the different pigments. 
But no matter what the weight of the pigment, a suf- 
ficient quantity will be required to make a stiff dough. 
In order to insure uniformity a good plan would be to 
weigh the pigment put in the first batch of filler, and if 
the filler works well put the same weight in all subse- 
quent lots. Be careful to measure the liquids accurately 
because on this will depend largely your success as a 
filler maker. 

In coloring filler, if dry colors are used they will 
displace an equal quantity of the other pigment, so that 
a smaller quantity of the latter will be required than 
would be the case with white filler. If the colors used 
are ground in oil or japan, then the oil or japan, as the 
case may be, will displace an equal amount of its kind in 
the original formula, and provision should be made to 
meet this. 

Occasionally a combination stain and filler is re- 
quired for cheap goods, such as elm and ash, and one 
that will not require cleaning off. For this purpose re- 
duce asphaltum with turpentine to the desired depth of 
color and mix into each gallon of the stain about two 
pounds of colorless paste filler. The paste filler for this 
purpose should be made of finely ground silex to insure 
transparency. After this stain is dry, if a coat of pig- 
ment surfacer is applied the pores will be filled per- 
fectly, and the whole will be ready for sanding and var- 
nishing. 

To reduce paste filler to the liquid state quickly, 
place the desired quantity of paste in the vessel in 
which it is to be used and pour on but a small quantity 
of benzine. Mix this together thoroughly, then add 
more benzine. It can be reduced to the required con- 
sistency much quicker this way than can be done if 
the full quantity of benzine is put on at the start. 

The consistency to which filler should be reduced 
must be regulated by the porous nature of the wood on 



THE MAKING AND USING OF FILLER 129 

which it is to be used, but in any event it should be 
reduced to a state in which it will work freely under 
the brush. Filler should be put on with a medium stiff 
brush, giving plenty of brushing to work it well into 
the pores. The pores of the wood are full of air which 
will prevent the filler going to the bottom and getting 
a firm hold unless it is well brushed. Evidence of this 
neglect will be found in the shape of "pinholes" after 
the goods get a coat of varnish. Very thin filler, or 
cleaning the filler off while it is wet, will result in ^^^t'^lt^T^ 

, - _ Or r ILLKR lo 

pinholes. regulated by 

Too frequently it happens that the edges of tops and nature of 
other narrow but prominent parts of the goods are not ^ood 
filled as well as the larger surfaces. This is largely be- 
cause these edges are usually perpendicular, and be- 
cause it is more diflficult to put a heavy coat of filler on 
a small surface than to put it on a large one. The way 
to overcome this difficulty is to put two or more coats 
on these places, allowing each coat to dry until it be- 
comes "flat" ; then put the next coat on top of it. 

Much depends on the way filler is cleaned off. This 
should be done in such a way that the filler in the pore 
is disturbed as little as possible. The best thing to use 
for cleaning off filler is the hair-like moss used for up- 
holstering. Of late years this has become too expensive 
to use for this purpose, consequently many other 
things have been tried in its place. Some shops use 
shavings, excelsior, burlap and anything that will re- 
move this surplus filler, and yet not be expensive. We 
have tried all these things, and some others, and have 
found that sea grass, or sea moss, as it is sometimes how to clean 
called, is superior to any of them, and it has the addi- off filler 
tional advantage of being inexpensive. 

To remove filler take a handful of the grass and 
shake it up well to remove any hard, foreign substances, 
then with it rub the article across the grain. One is 
less liable to disturb the filler in the pores by cleaning 
off across the grain. After as much of the filler has 
been removed as possible with this grass, the balance 
may be cleaned off thoroughly by wiping with a cotton 
cloth. Sterilized cotton rags are used generally for 
this purpose. Avoid rags that leave lint on the work. 



130 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



Rosewood is one of the most difficult woods to fill 
with the ordinary wood filler. The oil in this wood will 
eat its way up through the filler and injure the finish 
unless something- is done to prevent it. In the early 
history of what might be called our modern system of 
finishing, the filling of this beautiful wood was a long 
and costly process. Coat after coat of shellac was ap- 
plied and then sanded down to the wood or scraped off 
until the pores were filled to a level with the surface. 
FILLING WAS Shellac seemed to be the only thing that would keep in 
FORMERLY check the oil in this wood. But these several coats of 

EXPENSIVE shellac are not now necessary. Put on one good heavy 

coat of bleached shellac reduced at the rate of one and 
one-half pounds of gum to a gallon of spirits, using 
methylated spirits or grain alcohol as the solvent. 
Brush this well so that it will reach as deep as possible 
into the pores. This will seal up the fine pores through 
which the oil would ooze and hold it in check. After 
this is dry, the wood may be filled in the usual way. 
Do not sand the shellac before filling and do not have 
more oil in the filler than is absolutely necessary. 

When using filler, no matter on what kind of wood 
it is being used, keep it well stirred. Too much stress 
cannot be placed on the importance of this. If this is 
not done, the first part of the filler used will contain too 
much oil, and the latter part not enough because the 
pigment has been allowed to settle at the bottom. If the 
top part of such filler were used on rosewood, the con- 
sequence might be disastrous to the finish, while if the 
IMPORTANT TO bottom Were used on mahogany it certainly would be 
KEEP FILLER SO, because in the latter case the filler, deprived of the 
STIRRED oil, would tum gray in the pores, and give the whole 

work a grayish, clouded cast. 

In the case of mahogany, if these conditions have 
all been complied with, and the pores still show a gray- 
ish cast, one must look either to the original filler, or 
to the method of preparing the wood to receive the filler 
in order to get at the cause. The filler, which is just 
right for mahogany that has had a coat of thin shellac 
before filling, is not suitable for mahogany that has not 
had that shellac, because it does not contain a sufficient 
quantity of oil for the latter. This thin coat of shellac 



THE MAKING AND USING OF FILLER 131 

seals up the fine pores in the fibers of the wood and 
prevents them from extracting the oil from the filler 
and imbibing it. This leaves the oil w^ith the pigment 
and preserves the translucency of the filler, v^hich, 
when dry, retains the color of the liquid state. 

When filler is applied to mahogany that has not 
been coated with shellac the oil is drawn away from the 
pigment into the fibers of the wood by the force of 
capillary attraction and the pigment, deprived of this 
protection, becomes opaque and shows gray beside the 
brown mahogany. To counteract this, it is necessary 
that filler used on bare wood contain a slightly larger 
percentage of oil than that which is used on a shellaced 
surface. 

I have met finishers who were of the opinion that 
birch-stained mahogany does not require to be filled. 
But birch mahogany can be finished much more cheaply 
if it is filled. When not filled, the extra varnish and 
rubbing required to produce the desired results is much 
more expensive than the filling would be. 



SHELLAC AIDS 
TO PRESERVE 
TRANSLUCENCY 
OF FILLER 



CHAPTER XX 



CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 



WITH fumed oak, as much in vogue as it is at the 
present time, it is almost necessary that some- 
thing in the way of a fuming room or fuming 
box be supplied. I shall endeavor to describe three two types of 
types of this sort of equipment, supplementing it with fuming box 
some description of the process. 

The size of a fuming box must be left to the manu- 
facturer and be built according to his needs. After 
the size of the box has been determined upon, the fol- 
lowing methods, if followed, will produce a strictly up- 
to-date fuming box. 

Select a place in the factory which is easily acces- 
sible to daylight, blow-pipes and steam. After setting 
up the framework of the size which has been decided 
upon for the box, inclose it with matched flooring, giv- 
ing each groove or tongue a coat of thick 
paint and driving the joints well to- 
gether. On the sides make the sash for 
the glass as indicated in Fig. 1. Be care- 
ful that the glass, when put into the 
sash, is either set in soft putty or lead 
in oil. The reason for this is to make 
everything air-tight. The door should 
be sectional so that it can be opened for 
the various sizes of furniture, as it is 
often the case that after a first batch has 
been fumed, another batch of furniture 
can be quickly put in this box without 
exhausting the ammonia gas. The doors 
should be made with L joints and these 
joints fitted with felt. The doors are then locked with 
a friction lock much like those that are used on an ice 
box. In a corner, convenient and accessible, a series of 
shelves should be provided, the upper one a distance 
from the ceiling so that it will carry a five-gallon gal- 
vanized iron can. This can should be fitted with a 




door should 
be sectional 



134 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 




THE FRONT 




THE SIDE 



TWO VIEWS OF FUMING ROOM BUILT AFTER PLANS DE- 
SCRIBED IN FOLLOWING CHAPTER 



CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 



135 



faucet. The successive shelves should be supplied with 
half-inch deep pans, placed in such a position that 
when the first is filled with ammonia water it will over- 
flow into the second and so on down until the last pan 
empties into usually a five or ten gallon earthen jar. 

A steam coil placed in the jar will greatly facilitate 
the evaporation of the ammonia or, more correctly 
stated, the liberating of the ammonia from the water, 
and work an economy by reducing the amount of am- 
monia required. Right here is where caution must be 
exercised. First, the steam coil must be placed in a 
jar which is at least twice as large as the can. The 
steam coil takes up less than half of the space in the 
jar. This coil must then be covered with water and the 
steam should not be turned on until the ammonia water 
begins to drip from the last pan into the jar, for if the 
coil is not covered with water, the drippings will come 
down in such small quantities that they immediately 
will be evaporated and cause excessive moisture in the 
fuming box. Again, the steam must not be supplied to 
the coil in too great a quantity and thus create too much 
Tieat. It must be kept under control and the water 
maintained just below the boiling point. This can all 
be done by watching the process through the window. 
The question has been asked often whether the am- 
monia can be turned on before the doors are closed. 
Of course this is the only way it can be turned on. But 
it might be well to turn on the ammonia and allow the 
gas, in a measure, to replace the air before the doors 
are closed tightly. 

Recently there appeared an article giving the de- 
tails for constructing a fuming box, which is very 
good. Some points brought out are recommended, but 
the basic principle of the box as given in this chapter 
has not been changed sufficiently to make it necessary 
to incorporate any of the ideas here. One exception, 
however, should be noticed, because of the fact that the 
use of a steam coil and tank is useless and might lead 
to a doubt in the minds of those who wish to construct 
a fuming box. Therefore, it is necessary to say that the 
coil and jar are not placed in the fuming box to create 
any unnecessary moisture, which, according to the arti- 



HOW AMMONIA 
WATER IS 
LIBERATED 



FUMING BOX 
CRITICIZED 



136 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 





TWO VIEM^S OF THE INTKKIOK ()!•' ONE FUMING ROOM BUILT 
AFTER THE PLAN DESCHICED IN THIS CHAPTER 



CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 



137 



cle referred to, is employed to soften the wood. On the 
contrary, it is merely used to facilitate more liberation 
of the ammonia gas. 

To repeat: The ammonia dripping down slowly 
from pan to pan, finally reaches the jar. There must be 
a jar there to receive the ammonia water as it runs not touch 
from the tank over the several trays to this receptacle, steam pipe 



AMMONIA 
WATER MUST 




INTERIOR VIEW OF FUMING BOX 



which, if it is fitted with a steam coil, will heat the 
water present and thus help to liberate the ammonia 
gas. Particular attention is drawn by the writer to the 
fact that the steam coil must be covered with water so 
that the ammonia water when dropping down will not 
come in immediate contact with a hot steam coil and 
thus create steam. The entire idea is to avoid the 
steaming of the water and merely to raise the tempera- 
ture of the water present in the tank so that the am- 
monia will be given off more readily. At the same time 
this steam coil acts as a source of heat, which heat is 



138 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



FUMING 
EXPEDITED BY 
USE OF TAN 
BARK EXTRACT 



greatly desired, especially in the winter months, for 
raising the temperature inside the fuming box, because 
a warm gas will fume quicker than cold. Again, when 
the temperature is the same in the fuming box as on 
the outside, there is less condensation. 

The writer referred to recommends a trade article 
under the name of Fumine. It happen that the writer 





_j 



SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF WINDOWS 



of this book originated the name of Fumine and made 
the original product put on the market under that 
name. This was nothing more than tan bark extract. It 
was found at that time that by the addition of tan bark 
extract fuming would take less time than when the 
wood was put in the fuming box in its natural state. 
Later it was found that tan bark extract was nothing- 
more than a vehicle for tannin. Therefore, the use of 
Fumine, while recommended and doing the work, and 
while it covers all the virtues of tannin, resolves itself 



CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 



139 



down to the use of tannic and pyrogallic acids. In cov- 
ering a method for producing fumed oak it must be 
taken into consideration that sometimes some of the 
materials are not as easily obtained as others, and, 
therefore, the various products that can be used are use of test 
given, but the one producing the best results is recom- box is 
mended. recommended 

For those who do not wish to supply their fuming 




THE sectional DOORS 



chamber with windows the arrangement of an opening, 
called a testing box, is recommended. A sliding door 
of a size varying according to one's ideas, say 10x12 
to 10x20 inches, is made and back of it a box is placed 
which again is fitted with a sliding door. When the 
fuming chamber is charged with gas the inner door is 
opened and the outer one is closed. This outer door can 
be made of glass, and the process can be watched. 
When you desire to examine results, close inner door, 
take out piece and test by giving it a bit of oil, rubbing 
and shellacing it. If desired depth is not shown, replace. 



140 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 




ARRANGEMENT OF AMMONIA TANK 



CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 



141 




SHOWING SLIDING DOOR FOR TESTING 



142 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



COLOR OF 
WOOD VARIED 
BY STRENGTH 
OF TAN BARK 



HOW TO OBTAIN 
AMMONIA 



The entire interior of this chamber should be 
painted with the same care that you would paint a boat, 
and all crevices closed. In mentioning the size, it 
should be stated that it is not wise to build it any higher 
than required for the tallest piece of furniture. It costs 
money to fill the surplus space with gas. On the sides 
of the chamber, provide fastenings so that the pieces 
can be piled up to the ceiling without resting upon each 
other, much as the bed slats were arranged in an old- 
fashioned bed. In this way all the available space can 
be used. A box constructed in accordance with these 
directions will bring out results in the shortest possible 
space of time. 

These results can be greatly augmented and the 
time reduced, when it is necessary, by coating the work 
with tanned bark extract, about one part to ten of 
water. The result, or rather color of the wood, can be 
varied by varying the strength of the application of 
this tanned bark extract. It is possible to turn out a 
thoroughly fumed batch in six hours by use of this ex- 
tract. The question, of course, then is, which is the 
cheaper : to run the fuming box two or three times as 
long, or to coat the wood with an extract solution ? It 
is a fact that a much deeper effect or color can be 
made when the extract has been applied. 

Various ways have been tried for obtaining am- 
monia (which is a crystalline salt) ; by placing it on tin 
pans under Bun- C" C I T" 

sen burners; by rTE-LT 

mixing carbonate 
of ammonia with 
unslacked lime 
and then moisten- 
ing with water, 
etc. ; by using the 
anhydrous a m - 
monia, and, last- 
ly, by employing 
aqua ammonia or 
water of ammonia. Anhydrous ammonia is the gas 
which has been liquified by compression and will ex- 
pand into gas again as soon as the pressure is released. 




SHOWING JOINTS FILLED WITH FELT 



CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 



143 




JAR FILLED WITH COILS 



A cylinder of 100 pounds contains 100 per cent of 
absolute ammonia and requires more careful attention 

than aqua ammo- 
nia, which is a 
distilled water 
that has absorbed 
a large volume of 
ammonia gas by 
its own affinity 
and not under 
pressure. The 
ammonia in the 
aqua ammonia 
can be driven off 
easily by heat un- 
til nothing but 
the pure water 
remains, and this can be done by the steam coil ar- 
rangement and the agitation afforded by the dripping 
from pan to pan. 

A number of furniture factories at Rockford, 111., 
have installed fuming boxes which exhibit several in- 
genious and interesting features. 

The room shown in the accompanying plan is that 
in the factory of the Union Furniture Company, of 
which P. A. Peterson is president. It is 10 feet square, 
eight feet high, and is located on the top floor of the 
building against one of the exterior walls. This loca- 
tion was determined in order to secure ventilation 
through the roof and into the fuming box through a 
window opening from the exterior of the building for 
quickly cleaning the box of the ammonia fumes after 
the fuming was completed. Aside from requiring a 
greater length of ventilation pipe, a location on any 
other floor would be as satisfactory, provided there 
were a window opening from the outside or other 
means by which to secure a circulation of air and 
quickly clear the box of ammonia fumes without letting 
them into other parts of the factory. 

Both the dimensions of the box and its location have 
been practically adopted as standard in a number of 
Rockford factories. While the size permits of fuming 



A PRACTICAL 
FUMING BOX 



144 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



HOW ROCKFORD 
FUMING BOX 
IS MADE 



only from 25 to 34 pieces at a time, buffets, china 
closets, desks, etc., it has been found ample under 
ordinary circumstances, with the very decided advan- 
tage that a larger room requires more than a single 
carboy of ammonia, or a rehandling of the ammonia, 
and hence a longer time for the fuming process. 
The box itself should be built of matched stock with 




^^^^^n\rA\ A\ Avvw 







^ 



THE ROCKFORD TYPE OF FUMING BOX 



IS BUILT OF the finished side in. The openings in the wall are one 

MATCHED in the top for the ventilation pipe, a door (in this case 

STOCK about 3x7 feet) , a small sealed window located so as to 

place the ammonia trays in view from the outside of 

the box, and a sliding window located in juxtaposition 

with the lower sash of the window in the side wall of 



CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 145 

factory building. The small peep window is sealed all 
around and the door and sliding window fit closely and 
are provided with rubber strips, similar to weather 
strips, in order to make them air-tight when closed. 
The inside of the box is lined throughout, except at the 
ventilator and window openings, with sheet tin sol- 
dered together in the same manner as tin roofing, and 
correspondingly air and water tight. 

The arrangement of the apparatus for handling the plan for 
aqua ammonia and securing a dissemination of the handlingthe 
ammonia fumes is shown in the accompanying cross ammonia 
section and elevation of one side of the fuming box. It 
occupies a space 12 inches wide across one side of the 
box. A tank 12x18 inches and 12 inches deep, large 
enough to hold the contents of a carboy of aqua am- 
monia, is placed in an upper corner of the box. The 
carboy containing the ammonia is placed in the lower 
corner. When the goods to be fumed have been placed 
in the box and both window and door tightly sealed, 
the ammonia is pumped by a small hand pump from 
the carboy into the tank. From the tank it runs 
through a valve and down a series of steps and back 
to the carboy, when it is ready for use again. The 
tank and steps are made of galvanized iron and the 
steps have three-inch sides and are braced, as shown 
in the sketch. In previous plans, a series of trays 
which overflowed, one into the other, were used in 
place of the steps. The valve in the top reservoir is 
used in both instances to control the rate of flow of .^ ^,^,^^„,ta to 

OF AMMONIA IS 

the ammonia water. necessary 

The number of steps shown in the sketch is not 
necessarily the exact number used, as the drawing is 
not made to scale. The object, of course, is to have 
enough of them to give a large surface of water from 
which the ammonia gas can escape, and also to give 
enough motion to the water to hasten the separation of 
the gas from it. As the fuming box is sealed, and the 
air free from ammonia gas, when the water starts to 
flow, gas is taken up readily at first. As the box be- 
comes filled with ammonia, the gas escapes from the 
water less easily, and it is an advantage to have the 
ammonia water flow slower. The steps are hinged at 



146 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



OBJECTIONABLE 

FEATURES 

REMOVED 



SIMPLE FORM 
OF CANVAS 
FUMING BOX 



the top and may be raised or lowered by a rope fall 
which supports them at the bottom and operates from 
the outside of the box through a small hole in the top. 
For this purpose a pulley is placed on one of the sup- 
porting- joists of the roof, as indicated in the diagram. 
The same arrangement is used for raising the two win- 
dows when it is desired to clear the box of ammonia 
fumes. As soon as the windows are opened, the shut- 
off in the ventilator pipe is also opened and the air 
sweeps in and through the box, quickly emptying it 
of ammonia fumes and making it possible to remove 
the goods from the box without discomfort. 

With the arrangement for pumping the ammonia 
water from the carboy to the tank, the handling of am- 
monia is relieved of most of its objectionable features. 
Some difficulty was encountered in devising a pump 
which was not affected in any of its parts by the am- 
monia. The pump used is made of iron and steel espe- 
cially for the purpose. 

About two minutes' work suffices to pump the am- 
monia from the carboy into the tank. It is usually the 
practice to place the goods to be fumed in the box at 
night and in the morning they can be removed. The 
fuming, however, can be completed in less time when 
necessary. Twelve to 18 fumings can be made with 
a single carboy of ammonia, though the later fumings, 
w^hen the water is more nearly free from ammonia 
gas, require a longer time. 

It may not be possible in every case to construct 
as elaborate a fuming room as has already been de- 
scribed. It certainly is not at all probable such an 
equipment can be introduced in the manual training 
shcools. But here is a simple form of canvas fuming 
box which will do its work. 

Out of 2x2 material set up a frame-work, according 
to the size of the box desired, and cover with un- 
bleached cotton, the weight of this to be determined 
by the size of the box. When the four walls are set up 
and screwed together, put between the joints pieces 
of felt or some heavy material previou^y saturated 
with silicate of soda (liquid glass), which can be pur- 
chased at about 40 to 50 cents per gallon. When the 



CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 



147 



screws or bolts are drawn tight, air-tight joints will 

be secured. The top is put on in the same manner. The 

door can be covered in the same manner. When the 

frame-work is bolted or screwed to the floor, which 

oftentimes is uneven, use a half-round, under which 

is placed cloth saturated with the liquid glass and air tight box 

drawn down with screws. Then, after the box is set inexpensive 




PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF A CANVAS FUMING BOX 



up entirely, give it a coat of liquid glass and two coats 
of paint. This will give an absolutely air-tight fuming 
box, inexpensive, but serviceable. 

The arrangement of the can may be made as for 
the larger fuming room, or it may be placed outside 
with a tube running through the wall of the box into 
the livst pan. The capacity of these pans, together 
with the final receptacle, should be a little greater than 
the supply can. After the box is loaded, the ammonia 
is turned on and led into the pan by means of a small 
tube. It can remain in this manner until the process is 



148 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



THIS PROCESS 
TOO SLOW AND 
UNCERTAIN 



complete. The fumes can be exhausted by connecting 
the top of the box with a blower. The exhausting of 
the box will be accomplished quicker by opening the 
door an inch or two so that the same amount of air 
is let in as exhausted by the blower. 

While the process here described contemplates the 
evaporation of ammonia without artificial aid, the 



1 


/^ 


) 






// 




1 



SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF FRAME-WORK 



process is objectionable. First, it is slow. Second, 
it is rather uncertain in its results, because of the 
liability of the ammonia to vary in strength. Third, 
because in purchasing and transporting ammonia in 
the liquid form, it is necessary to transport a large 
amount of water. An inventor, whose device is shown 
herewith, has sought to overcome all of these objec- 
tions. The system depends upon liquifying the gas 
and accurately measuring it and then permitting it to 
enter the fuming box in a gaseous form only. In this 
patented system, the anhydrous ammonia is used, and 
it is claimed that the operator is placed in position to 



CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 



149 



know absolutely just how much gas per cubic foot of 

space to use in order to produce a certain shade of 

color. It then becomes a matter of simple equation, 

thus: Space + gas = time -f- results. The operator 

will then work out his definite formula and control workmen can 

his shades by the amount of gas and time — space govern shade 

having become a known quantity. To do this, the in fuming 




END VIEW SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF AMMONIA TANK 
AND TRAY 



apparatus shown in the illustration is used. One 
pound of anhydrous gas is used for every 200 cubic 
feet of space in the fuming box. The apparatus works 
automatically. There is no danger whatever in con- 
nection with this method as, should an accident happen 
to the glass gauge, this supply of ammonia is cut off, 
doing away with any danger. The valves are all high 
pressure, tested up to 500 pounds' pressure, assuring 
absolute safety. The time required is greatly shortened 
by this system, as 12 hours of the fuming or over 
night, produces a greater effect than from 24 to 36 



150 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



REAL FUMED 
OAK THUS 
PRODUCED 



hours by the old method. The operation of the system 
is absolutely accurate, as in setting the scale for weigh- 
ing the amount of ammonia required there is no guess 
work or wasting of extra ammonia. The system is the 
application of a scientific principle taking advantage 
of a chemical change, controlling it all by an ingenious 
device which, in itself, gives to man the use of an 




ILLUSTRATING A PATENTED AUTOMATIC AND MEASURING 
DEVICE FOR THE INJECTION OF AMMONIA GAS 



element by the simple turning of valves and the element 
then doing the work that he desires. Fumed oak, thus 
produced, is absolutely permanent. Fumed oak that is 
fumed oak is recognized from its imitations, and the 
older it grows, the better it gets, whereas, the imita- 
tion wears off at the edges, bearing its own stamp of 
imitation. 



CHAPTER XXI 

SOMETHING MORE ABOUT FUMING 

FUMED oak, as the name implies, should be pro- 
duced by the fuming of oak. It is an established 
fact that when the unfinished oak is subjected 
to ammonia in its gaseous form, ordinarily called finish shade 
fumes of ammonia, the wood assumes a color which is controlled by 
now being marketed as fumed oak. The shades can be length of 
controlled by the length of time that the wood is sub- fuming 
jected to the process, and the color can be greatly aug- 
mented by the application of boiled oil. The most 
beautiful results are obtained, however, by applying 
linseed oil heated, so it is just bearable to the hand, 
and then thoroughly rubbed into the wood. After it 
has dried, the process is repeated. This gives a fumed 
oak of that richness that is found only in furniture 
a good many years old. The process of today, how- 
ever, is to use one part of boiled oil and from three 
to four parts of naphtha which, of course, dries a good 
deal quicker. This being thinned, penetrates the wood, 
and, to a certain extent, produces the hot oil effect. 
When this coat is dry, a thin coat of shellac is applied 
and then the piece is waxed and called finished. 

This latter method produces a very creditable 
result, but it does not come up to the first-named texture of 
method. When the fuming process was first employed, soil has 
it was customary to use the wood of a single log. A influence on 
more evenly-colored piece of furniture was the result, fuming 
Today this would be a difficult proposition, because a 
piece of furniture is apt to be made up of wood from 
various logs. Again, these logs are grown on various 
kinds of soil. The result, therefore, cannot possibly 
be as uniform. After a piece made up in this way is 
fumed, and the oil coat has brought out the shadings 
and the oil is thoroughly dry, rub off any grease spots 
that may remain and even up by using a water solution 
of sulphur brown, blending it nicely by the use of a 
camel hair brush. (See "Blending.") Then give it 



152 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



HOW TO 
SHORTEN TIME 
OF FUMING 



OAK YIELDS 
BEST RESULTS 
WITH AMMONIA 



a coat of shellac, preferably made of one part white 
shellac, one part orange shellac, and one or two parts 
of wood alcohol. Apply the wax. 

There is absolutely no need of mentioning any other 
method for the use of ammonia. While it is true that 
it can be obtained from other methods, the time re- 
quired and cost is prohibitive. 

The important question is how to shorten the time 
required in the fuming- process. While this largely 
depends unon the strength of ammonia, and the ef- 
ficiency of the fuming box or room, it still is true that 
if it is possible to shorten the hours required to fume 
and to produce the necessary depth of color, the method 
wouM be welcome, especially during the rush season. 

Just now there are compounds offered to the manu- 
facturer M'hich, by their application, reduce the time 
required in the fuming box. To a certain degree, it is 
playing one hand against the other. You pay for the 
labor to coat the work in order to save the time in the 
fuming box. If this were all that these comnounds 
yielded, it then would be merely a matter of equipment 
and the cost of that equipment, but some of the com- 
pounds have merits other than that of saving time 
which is an aid in giving a deeper color and, to a cer- 
tain degree, an aid in securing a more uniform result. 
Take work that is made up of various grades of oak. 
These will be found to yield a more uniform result by 
first having been coated with one of these compounds, 
and then will require to be subjected to the fumes of 
ammonia for a shorter time. The color eflFect is pro- 
duced by changing the compound rather than calling 
upon the presence of the color-giving factor in the 
wood, tannin. 

We are aware of the fact that the oak yields the 
best results when subjected to the fumes of ammonia. 
This is due to the large percentage of tannin present. 
Therefore, is it not the most plausible belief that by 
supplanting the amount of tannin a quicker result and, 
also, a stronger result, a deeper shade, is obtained in 
fuming? It will be found that all of the compounds 
oflfered on the market are based orr this theory, and 
that most of them depend upon their results for the 



r OMETHTNG MORE ABOUT FUMING 153 

tannin they contain. To satisfy the user of a fuming 
box as to the efficiency of tannin, and its kindred chem- 
icals, let the following experiment answer the question. 

Procure a good sample of the various kinds of oak 
and, after it has been dressed, such as it would be when 
made up into furniture, coat small portions of each 
with the various strengths of the chemicals mentioned 
below. To be explicit, remember that each one is to 
be coated alike, a strip of three or four inches wide, 
so that later they can be laid alongside each other and efficiency of 
the results compared. This will show, besides the gen- "^^^^^^ "^^ 
eral results, the difference which the wood itself makes, 
so that later on in actual practice, the strength can be 
changed to produce a uniformity on the different oaks. 

Tannic acid can be purchased in reasonable quan- 
tities at about $1 a pound, pyrogallic acid at about $2 
and gallic acid at 75 cents. Take one-half ounce of 
each one of these chemicals and dissolve each in a 
quart of water. Now coat each piece of wood with 
these solutions in three different places and subject' 
them to the fuming process. It is well, also, to have 
always a piece of wood similar to that which is to be 
fumed along with the test pieces so that the difference . 
can be more readily estimated. For the extractive 
compounds, procure some tan bark liquor, chestnut 
extract, quebracco extract and catechu, and make with 
these various strengths by adding one ounce to the 
quart of water. Apply these to the oak as described 
above. The results must give the answer to the entire 
problem of using chemicals or fuming compounds to comparative 
hasten the fuming process. F^MmG '"^ 

A greater uniformity can be produced in the fuming 
box if the wood, or piece of furniture, is coated with 
a solution of tannic acid, and pyrogallic acid, prefer- 
ably one-half ounce of the former, and one ounce of 
the latter to the gallon of water. It has been found 
that when the fumes of ammonia have been applied 
at least four hours, a very even result is obtained, 
much more so than when fumed without the applica- 
tion of the acids. Where extreme differences of shade 
are shown, these can be overcome by wetting these 
places with naphtha which will bring out the discrep- 



154 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



UNIFORMITY 
PRODUCED BY 
USE OF 
SHELLAC 



ancy of shade. As soon as the naphtha has practically 
dried out coat with a very weak solution of brown 
stain. For this, use a solution of bichromate of potash 
and jet black. Put enough of the black into the bi- 
chromate solution to give it the brownish tint. Under- 
stand thoroughly that this must be a weak stain. It 
will be found that when the shellac coat is applied, a 
uniformity is produced altogether more satisfactory 
than when the toning is done in the shellac coat. 



SUGGESTION IN 

STAINING 

PROCESS 



CHAPTER XXII 

FUMING OAK BY STAINING PROCESS 

TO BETTER familiarize the reader with the gen- 
eral operation of the various steps in the produc- 
tion of fumed oak by the use of any of the several 
formulas given, and to bring out the great possibilities 
by the employment of various strengths of chemical 
solutions, these general suggestion will apply: 

Where the stain method is employed, a good deal 
can be done to assist in producing the desired result 
in the first coat. A solution of two parts of bichromate, 
one part of carbonate of potash, calling the parts 
ounces, to the gallon of water, will produce a first coat. 
Apply this coat thoroughly, and let it stand 24 hours. 
Where a light piece of wood is laid next to a quartered 
darker piece, say red oak, let the stainer coat the entire 
piece, and then re-coat along the -line of the light piece, 
blending it out. This, when it dries down, and receives 
the second coat, will materially uniform the shade. 
Again, the application of naphtha will assist. Under- 
stand that the naphtha has nothing to do with the pro- 
duction of the color. It merely helps to bring out the 
difference in shade, and the man that is doing the 
blending in that way will shortly know just how heavy 
to apply the blending coat, and can then dispense with 
the use of naphtha. Where the blending is done over 

AGAINST 

the second coat of- stain, care must be taken not to "piungup" 
lift the second coat, so as to "pile it up," and thus pro- 
duce blotchy work. It will not be necessary to sand 
these blended coats ; the sanding of the first coats will 
have sufficiently smoothed the work. 

In chair factories, where smaller surfaces are pre- 
sented, the following method may be found expedient 
for dipping. It is purely a chemical proposition, and 
by no means a poor way to stain. Make a solution of 
the two acids recommended, and dip the wood; let it 
drain back from a wood drain board. Absolutely no 
metallic surfaces can be used, which means that the 



GUARDING 



156 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



METHOD FOR 
ISE WITH 
SMALLER 
SURFACES 



IMPORTANT 
ITEMS IN 
PROCEDURE 



tank itself must be constructed entirely of wood. Im- 
merse the piece, and see that it is covered thoroughly. 
Many times you will find that the dust from the sand- 
ing operation not being removed thoroughly, will keep 
the stain solution from getting into the wood. In cases 
like that, a sponge saturated with the stain, must be 
passed over these surfaces thoroughly. Again, sweaty 
or greasy fingers will keep this stain from penetrating. 
It is necessary to pass the sponge over these spots until 
you are certain that the same amount of stain has been 
applied as on the balance of the article. After this 
dipping solution has dried thoroughly, sand very 
lightly, just enough to remove all the fibers, and dust 
again. Then immerse the piece in a solution of bi- 
chromate of potash, caustic potash, four ounces to the 
gallon, or three ounces of each to the gallon, if a strong 
tone is to be obtained. Dissolve four ounces of sulphate 
of copper in a quart of hot water. Of this copper solu- 
tion, measure from four to six ounces, preferably in a 
glass vessel. To the copper solution add an equivalent 
volume of stronger water of ammonia. When the am- 
monia is first added, a white precipitate will be formed, 
which is copper-hydroxide, but which immediately re- 
dissolves and forms a deep ultra-marine blue colored 
solution, with a very strong ammoniacal odor. This is 
due to the excess of ammonia, and as long as this excess 
of ammonia is present the copper will remain in solu- 
tion. This blue solution, then, is added to the chrome 
potash solution which amounts to a little better than a 
gallon, but which must be in thorough solution, that is, 
the bichromate and the carbonate must have been dis- 
solved. The sudden contact of a carbonate with water 
has a tendency so to harden the carbonate as to keep 
it from dissolving, and when it once gets into this con- 
dition, it is apt to stay in a solid form encrusted on the 
bottom of the vessel, jug or jar. In that way the resul- 
tant shade will be that much lighter. When the solu- 
tion, however, is perfect, stir in the blue copper solu- 
tion, and continually stir or agitate, with the result 
that a beautiful light green stain will be produced. 
This, then, is the second coat. Whether it be used 
with a brush, or whether it be used as a dipping stain, 



FUMING OAK BY STAINING PROCESS 157 

it will form a rich brown when it comes in contact with 

the first coat. The chemical effect produced is very 

much like that when the same wood is subjected to the 

fuming box. It will not raise the grain as one would 

think ; it will not attack the glue joints, as is often 

thought it would. The setting of it has been assured 

by the care taken in applying the first coat, but if this 

care has not been taken, it is self-evident that the 

neglect will be more apparent because the second coat 

has had no chemical to work upon, and thus a much the result of 

lighter color will be presented where the first coat was 

omitted. 

When a formula of this kind is recommended, the 
reader must apply a bit of his own ingenuity. He can 
strengthen or weaken this solution ; he can augment 
the second coat by the addition of anilines, bearing in 
mind that the mordant which sets the aniline is present 
in the chemical constituents of the stain, so that there 
is practically no shade of fumned oak, or brown oak, 
that cannot be produced with this method. Nor is it 
necessary that this be used on oak alone. The most 
beautiful and richest mahoganies, rosewood or cherry 
can be produced with this method. A decided chemical 
change is wrought by the application of these chem- 
icals. Understand, if these are all mixed together they 
would be absolutely useless. The result is due entirely 
to the placing of the constituent upon which the second 
series of chemicals work, producing the chemical ^.q^ortobe 
changes which bring forth the color. judged only 

I must emphasize that the judging of these colors, with final 
or rather the results, must not be done until the wood finish 
has received its finish, the shellac and wax bringing 
out a depth of shade far greater than would be ex- 
pected. 

Where the cost will permit an oil coat, before the 
shellac is put on, it will revive the wood and give it a 
richness and mellowness that cannot be produced by 
the ordinary way of finishing. It must be remembered 
that in a fumed oak finish rarely is it filled; whereas 
most of the other finishes are filled, and in that manner 
a certain amount of oil is received by the wood. Where 
the wood is not filled, this oil usually is omitted, with 



158 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



THOROUGHNESS 
IN FINISH 
BRINGS PROFIT 



POTASH 
SOLUTION 
HELPS IN 
SHADING 



the consequence that we lack the depth of transparency 
which is given by the oil. One simply has to exemplify 
this by coating a piece of paper with oil, and then 
shellacing it, or simply shellacing a piece of paper, and 
holding both up to a light. 

Thoroughness in the finishing department brings 
profits. There are many corners that can be cut when 
the department is systematized, and where the opera- 
tors have a thorough acquaintance with the materials 
at hand, where every handling of the piece counts. A 
directness of purpose — no rule-o'-thumb methods — 
records of operations in black and white, so they may 
be repeated and duplicated at a moment's notice, are 
a few of the things advocated. 

In the factories where fumed oak is produced by 
the staining method, it happens often that in their 
endeavors to produce a certain matching the difficul- 
ties are noticed mostly in the flake. To reproduce the 
peculiar color that the flake assumes in the fuming 
process has baffled the staining room more than once. 
Some of the shades can be produced by sponging the 
M^ood with a strong potash solution to which has been 
added bichromate of potash. This is satisfactory where 
the yellowish shades predominate. The flakes will take 
on the color and the same will be permanent, but since 
fumed oak is being made darker this method no longer 
suffices to match the genuine fumed, as far as the flake 
is concerned. This can be done, however, by using a 
very weak solution of iron in the first coat, or better, 
in the sponging water. Add to the gallon about one 
ounce of sulphate of iron, and let the work stand over 
night before any more work is done on the piece. It 
will have taken on a light blue gray color which can be 
partially sanded off and the process proceeded with. 
That is, the brown coats applied when you will notice 
that the flakes will take on the shades produced by the 
regular fuming process. All in all, this is a ticklish 
procedure, as no two pieces of oak will give the same 
depth of color. 

In high grade work this can be done nicely, as a 
piece that has a good many flakes ean have a heavier 
coat of the sponging solution, and in that way the flake 



STAIN 



FUMING OAK BY STAINING PROCESS 159 

receives the iron salt required to produce the shade that 
is now in vogue. It always must be remembered that 
the flakes present the most difficulty in taking on any 
kind of stain and, therefore, must be handled with such 
chemical solutions as are best adapted to penetrate and 
produce an effect upon them without depreciating the 
other part of the timber. The sanding will take off 
some of this effect, and it is peculiar, but nevertheless 
true, that it evens up when the final results are ob- 
tained. That is, it is particularly noticeable after the ""^akes prove 
first coat of shellac. difficult to 

Usually the fumed stained coat has in it a brown, 
black, orange and in some formulas yellow. From this 
make-up you will recognize how it is that by putting 
a bluish gray on the work for the underlying coat the 
flake takes on the color that is produced in the fuming 
process. Take a thoroughly fumed piece of wood and 
examine it closely. You will notice that the center 
of the flake is hard and glassy appearing and that the 
outer part of the flake is of a lighter shade and does 
not seem to have taken the color as did the center or 
any other part of the wood. It is absolutely correct, 
but they must harmonize. In no way can the flake 
stand out as an individual, rather than the component 
part of the entire board. 

This can be controlled by the handling of the first 
two coats. The iron solution must be in harmony with 
the orange or yellows in the brown mixture. When 
you get a line on the shade you are after, a few little 
testings will suffice to give you the definite formula. 
You know why you are using more or less of these 
two colors, and by watching the effect upon the flake, 
the balance of the wood will come out in beautiful har- 
mony with the flake. 

The only place where extreme care is required is 
where the iron coat, or sponging coat, is applied to the 
fine grained wood or sappy wood. The operator must 
apply the solutions sparingly to the close grained and 
not at all to the sappy portions. Where the greenish 
effect is desired in the fumed oak, it can be produced 
by using the iron solution in the sponging coat stronger 
and the yellow in the brown coat, thus producing the 



CARE NEEDED 
WITH IRON 



160 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



HOW TO AVOIli 
USE OF IRON 
COAT 



greenish effect. Another way is to avoid entirely the 
use of the iron and produce the green by using a pre- 
ponderance qf yellow and green aniline in the stain 
coat. This is merely mentioned to give the reader an 
idea how to go at it. A bilious looking fumed oak is 
never going to stand the test of time. It does not har- 
monize with the usual decorations of the home. It is 
a harsh contrast with wall finishes and other decora- 
tions, and to the manufacturer who has a call for it the 
foregoing will give him an idea how to go at it. There 
is little to worry about, as it is almost impossible to 
find two pieces of the new idea of fumed oak that will 
match each other. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

ACIDS AND THEIR USE IN FUMING 

AS THE words ''tannin," "tannic acid," "gallic 
acid" and "pyrogallic acid" are being used fre- 
quently in this book, undoubtedly a more de- 
tailed knowledge of what these substances really are 
is desired by those whose occupation makes it neces- puQ^ 
sary for them to know their uses. What may be said 
here will serve as information relative to the source 
and general constituent of a commodity which is be- 
ing used more and more in the production of colors in 
the finishing room. 

Tannins or Tannic Acid are terms applied to a 
large number of rather complex organic substances 
found in various parts of many plants and trees in 
certain abnormal or pathological growth (galls) oc- 
curring on the stems or leaves of many plants. In 
general they are light amorphus solids, pale yellow or 
brown in color, soluble in water, having an astringent 
taste, and giving a blue black or olive green precipitate 
with ferric (iron) salts. They form insoluble staple 
compounds out of gelatine and albumin, this property 
being made use of in the process of tanning. The 
tannins may be divided into two groups. Those ob- 
tained from abnormal vegetable growths, such as nut 
galls, and those obtained from the healthy portion of 
the plant. At the present time, tannin is obtained 
from the palmetto, which grows in our South, que- 
bracco and from the chestnut tree. All are indigenous 
to our own country. Gallotannic acid, digallic acid, 
ordinary tannic acid, is a most important member of 
the first class. It occurs in the gall nuts of the various 
varieties of the oak, in the Chinese and Turkish gall 
nuts and in certain kinds of sumac. The chemical for- 
mula is C. 14. H. 10. 0.9. It may be considered anhy- 
dride of gallic acid. It passes to that body when 
heated with dilute alkalies. Gallotannic acid is used 
in the preparation of gallic and pyrogallic acids, in the 



WHERE THE 
TANNINS COME 



162 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



GALLIC ACID 
COMES FROM 
GALL NUTS 



GALLIC ACID 
AN IMPORTANT 
ASTRINGENT 



preparation of ink ; in medicine as an astringent, and 
as a mordant in dyeing. 

The most important tannins of the second class are 
found in the bark, wood and leaves of the oaks and 
hemlocks. Many other similar acids, such as querci 
tannic acid, from the oak, of somewhat uncertain con- 
stitution, are known. These are said to be a reddish 
white powder, slightly soluble in cold water, more 
readily in diluted alcohol. Undoubtedly many of these 
acids are present in our woods, as used in the industry, 
and it is upon these that we depend to a certain degree 
for the color produced when chemicals are applied that 
are affected by the presence of the tannins and kindred 
acids in the woods. 

Gallic Acid is an acid which exists in a small 
quantity in gall nuts, in Valonia (the acorn cups of the 
oak), in pods of sumac and other vegetables. It is 
usually prepared from gall nuts which, in addition to 
the gallic acid, contain a large proportion of tannin 
(tannic acid or gallo-tannic acid). When the gall nuts 
are digested with water for some weeks, fermentation 
takes place, and the tannic acid is gradually converted 
into gallic acid. The same result is obtained more 
quickly if sulphuric acid be present. To obtain pure 
gallic acid, the gall nuts are boiled with water and the 
hot liquor separated. On cooling, gallic acid crystal- 
lizes out, and is further purified in the solution of hot 
water, and treatment with animal charcoal. It forms 
delicate, silky crystals, nearly colorless, and having 
a sourish taste. It is soluble in boiling water, but only 
one part to one hundred in cold water. On this account 
it can be readily purified by recrystallization. With a 
solution of iron, it produces a blue black color, and 
finally yields a black precipitate on exposure to the air. 
Hence it may also be used in the production of ink, 
for which purpose it has some advantage over tannic 
or gall nuts. When the crystals are strongly heated, 
pyrogallic acid is produced, and sublimes over. Gallic 
acid is useful as an astringent as it does not coagulate 
albumin. It is readily absorbed into the blood, but 
where a decided local astringent eflfect is desired, tannic 
acid is much more powerful. This bit of information 



PYROGALLIC 



ACIDS AND THEIR USE IN FUMING 163 

is of value to the factory man, as in cases of cuts or 
slight injuries a tampon, soaked with a 5 per cent 
solution of tannic acid will act as an astringent and 
stop the bleeding. 

Pyrogallic Acid, Pyrogallol or Tri-Oxy-Ben- 
ZINE are produced, as stated, by the action of heat on 
gallic acid, carbon-dioxide being eliminated in the 
process. Fine, colorless needles or plates, readily 
soluble in water, less so in alcohol or ether, melting 
point 102 degrees C. It is valuable because of its great 
affinity for oxygen. Its alkaline solution is used to ^„^,^ „,:,A-nT:,r. 

u u • 1 • Tj. ^ ^ j: from HEATED 

absorb oxygen m gas analysis. It forms a number of gallic acid 
derivatives, some being valuable dye stuff. 

With this short description of the three vegetable 
acids which today are playing such a strong part in 
the production of fumed oak, we can readily see where- 
in we take advantage of their peculiarities in produc- 
ing stains. 

Pyrogallic acid can be made up into an alkaline 
solution which will turn brown, and this gives to the 
finisher a new line to experiment with. At the present 
time we are applying a mixture of tannic acid and 
pyrogallic acid and follow it with a mixture in salution 
of bichromate of potash and carbonate of potash or 
soda. Pyro, as it is commonly called, will permit of 
making the solutions all in one, and it only remains to 
take into consideration the amount of each chemical 
that will remain in solution and be of sufficient strength 
to produce the depth of brown now conventional as tannin and 
fumed oak. We have gone to the products used by the ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ 
tanning works to obtain our dye stuffs in a crude way; uniform 
that is to say, the extracts are of more or less variable s™^^^^^ 
strengths. The percentage of tannin is really all we 
rely upon, and as the extracts known as tan bark 
extracts generally were not standardized as to the 
definite strengths of tannin, our results necessarily 
were uncertain, and therefore, we reverted to the use 
of tannic acid and pyrogallic acid themselves. These 
are of uniform strength. Their application has 
been treated upon heretofore, but the man who is 
supposed to be using these commodities can better 
understand the handling of them when he has some 



164 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



WHY COLORS 
PRODUCED IS A 
MATTER OF 
CHEMISTRY 



knowledge as to the source of his supplies. To tell 
why a color is produced, and what changes really take 
place, would be stepping into organic chemistry, which 
is complex to say the least, and could not be expected 
to be comprehended by the craftsman. But the simple 
statement that the results obtained by the processes 
and formulas given are absolutely permanent and defi- 
nite, must suffice. To know and to be positive of this 
statement only requires a few experiments to convince 
the skeptical. 

The chemical changes which take place and through 
which the color is produced, are according to the laws 
of nature, and while nature works many freaks, it 
never belies itself. To take advantage of the natural 
changes produced by the various applications of 
nature's products is but to help oneself. It is impor- 
tant that one become familiar with these changes and 
processes which are here offered and which are ours 
by mastering them. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

GLUE JOINTS THAT PART IN FUMING 

WHEN difficulty is encountered in glue joints 
parting during the fuming process, it will be 
found due to one or two causes — glue or hu- 
midity in the fuming box. When this trouble arises, procedure to 
do not condemn the glue itself; it may be a fault in follow 
its application or in its preparation and general treat- 
ment. A quick remedy is to have about 1 per cent of 
alum dissolved in the water. This has a hardening 
effect and it has been found glue joints made with 
alum will withstand the fuming process under all con- 
ditions. One thing is to be avoided when steam is 
employed to agitate the final drippings of ammonia; 
never should it be allowed to escape in the fuming box. 
Joints that are not made true, where the glue is 
applied so thickly that you might almost call it a space 
filler, are dangerous at best. The amount of glue is 
so great, the surface so large, subjected to all kinds 
of atmospheric conditions, that ammonia gas may have 
a detrimental effect; but this is a fault of the wood- 
working end rather than of the staining department, 
although manifested only when the finishing depart- 
ment receives the work. 



FEW FORMULAS 
COME WITHIN 
SOLVENT LIMIT 



CHAPTER XXV 
THE MANIPULATION OF STAINS 

IT IS safe to say that very few published formulas 
exceed, or come within, the solvent limit of their 
solids. The difficulty of overloading the liquid is 
usually encountered in endeavoring to get a dark or 
heavy shade, but this can always be avoided by change 
of materials. Whenever a color or stain requires more 
of the color material than remains in solution, it is well 
to quit at once the attempt at producing a stain with 
that material. It then becomes more of a paint. With 
the later stain materials this is rarely the case. It is 
only by the use of the older method that these difficul- 
ties are encountered. When a formula is once estab- 
lished and the resultant shade correct, the necessity of 
bearing the foregoing recommendations in mind must 
be apparent. Again, it is taken for granted that for- 
mulas are made up of materials, the standard of which 
can be maintained. In this day, when aniline colors 
can be obtained in almost every conceivable shade, 
under normal conditions, their use is recommended. 
But in cases where extracts of vegetable matter are 
emploj^ed, uniformity must always be guarded by keep- 
ing for comparison the original solution made up from 
the same material as that employed in building the 
original formula. 

For this purpose, adopt a uniform standard, say, standard 
for example, use one ounce of your color material, and 
dissolve it in sufficient water so that a light shade of 
the color is produced, label it and put it away. When 
the next batch of the same material is purchased, make 
a like solution and compare it. If it corresponds with 
the original sample, it is safe to employ in the future 
stains, but if it runs darker, you Avill have to lessen the 
quantity, and if it runs lighter you will have to increase 
the quantity. This precaution is not necessary where 
anilines are employed, but is safe to carry out, es- 
pecially where color material is offered at reduced 



maintain 
uniform 



168 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



REDUCTION OF 
COLOR VALUE 
TO BE AVOIDED 



THE 

CHEMICALS 
THAT SHOULD 
BE SHUNNED 



prices. The reduction is usually compensated for by 
a similar reduction of the color value furnished. Un- 
fortunately, this reduction is made by the addition of 
salt, sugar or dextrin. Take a high grade color for 
which the market price is 70 cents. It may be offered 
to you for 60 cents, the difference being made up by 
that same percentage of salt in the product shipped to 
you. This is not detectable in the physical appearance 
of the dry color received, and often it is not noticed 
until the last finishing coats are applied. Ofttimes 
this reduction is made gradually and then it is not 
noticed for months after until, perchance, a piece of 
furniture is compared with one made in a previous 
year. While this is not a common occurrence, it is, 
however, one of the many obstacles that the foreman 
finisher has to contend with in maintaining the general 
uniformity of his stain. 

The preparation of stains in the factory does not 
alone depend upon the mixing of colors and dissolving 
them in a liquid, but it depends upon a more or less 
familiar knowledge with those colors that go to produce 
a desired shade. The writer has often cautioned the 
consumer, when purchasing anilines, to insist upon get- 
ting acid colors or direct colors — preferably acid colors. 
Where a certain shade cannot be produced with the 
acid colors at hand, direct colors may be used. Again, 
where mixtures do not produce the desired effect, try 
to obtain the desired shades by applying one coat over 
the other. Where chemicals are employed, there are 
only a few that are to be avoided. They are notably 
the permanganates, silver salts, or the weaker salts 
which are easily affected by any of the vegetable acids 
that may be present in the wood. Sometimes the change 
so produced is calculated to make a component part of 
the desired shade, as in the oaks. The tannin will 
affect the iron salts by producing tannate of iron. The 
amount of tannate of iron produced then depends unon 
the amount of tannic acid present in the oak, and as 
this varies greatly, there is only one way that definite 
results on oaks can be produced. 

Inasmuch as a good many of the present finishes 
depend upon these two chemicals, it might be well to 



THE MANIPULATION OF STAINS 169 

give to the reader a method for definitely producing 
the shades always uniform by taking advantage of this 
chemical change. It is known that there is nothing 
more absolute than a chemical. Therefore, take an 
iron solution of a certain strength, and a certain 
amount of tannic acid would change all the iron 
present to tannate of iron, Tannate of iron is a gray- 
ish black. The weaker the solution, the weaker the 
color. As the wood is an unknown quantity as far as 
the amount of tannin is concerned, it becomes neces- how produce 
sary, in order to get a uniform shade, to have one of shades 
the chemicals of specific strength, and the other one in always 
excess, so that you are positive the color-giving prod- uniform 
ucts are entirely exhausted by the chemical change. 

Therefore, we take a definite solution of the iron 
salts. See to it that there is enough — yes, more than 
enough — tannin present to effect the change. We coat 
the wood with just enough tannin or tannic acid to 
neutralize the iron solution, depending upon the tan- 
nic acid present in the wood to be in excess. This as- 
sures a certainty of results. Of course, the finisher 
knows that weak solutions always can be neutralized. 
Tt is safe to say that any kind of oak contains enough 
natural tannin present to overcome a one to three per 
cent solution of iron salt. 

In a following chapter, where formulas are to be 
found, the production of different shades, all depending 
upon chemicals, will be given, but the principle in- 
volved in many of them is the same as the preceding 
illustration. color of wood 

The preparation of stains, as far as possible, should ^^^"^ ^^^^ 
be the final operation of the color-producing attempt, consideration 
but there are cases where it is simply impossible to 
meet the demands of style and fashion with just one 
operation. It is unfortunate that natural wood varies 
in its tone, and that in each and every case the result 
forces us to take into consideration the color of the 
wood in the building of every formula. For instance, 
the man who is using birch or maple in the making up 
of mahogany makes it necessary for his foreman fin- 
isher to take into consideration the difference in the 
wood when he stains this piece of furniture. The fin- 



170 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



SIMPLE WAY 
OF TESTING 
MATCHINGS 



MANY FINISHES 
DEPEND ON 
WOOD PORES 



isher, under these circumstances, in making his for- 
mula, increases the strength of the stain which is to 
be applied, to the lighter woods beyond the stain for 
the darker wood, so that the results will be uniform. 
Or if he is using part mahogany, he will make the 
stain so that it will give the desired shade and matches 
up the lighter woods with the darker stain. A simple 
way of testing these matches is to wet the stains with 
naphtha after they have dried, and make the com- 
parison while the naphtha is wet. This proposition, 
however, will not work out satisfactorily on oil colors, 
for it is apt to make them run. 

In making up the formula, many foremen finishers 
have found that an increase of from four to six per 
cent of color comes very near to making the matches. 
The procedure for making oil or spirit stains is very 
similar to that of water stains, where anilines are 
employed. There are but a few vegetable products 
that can be used in the latter solvents, and we recom- 
mend the omission of them entirely. Pigments should 
never be used as a stain. Where colors are produced, 
by their use, it is better to classify them as paints or 
graining colors. But many of our up-to-date finishes 
depend upon the color produced in the pores of the 
wood by the filler. These are notably employed in 
porous woods where the pores are filled and the filler 
usually colored with pigments that harmonize with the 
general tone of the finish. 

Spirit mahogany must come in for consideration, 
because none of the stains that are used in making it 
have been mentioned in the preparation of water stain. 
Spirit mahogany is nothing more than Bismark brown, 
of which there are a good many varieties and strengths. 
A good quality of Bismark will make a very admirable 
spirit mahogany. However, it is necessary to caution 
the users of Bismark brown, because they are apt to 
use more powder than is required. Every stain pow- 
der that is soluble has a certain percentage of solu- 
bility, and beyond that there can be no solution. For 
instance, if a gallon of alcohol will dissolve four ounces 
of Bismark brown, all that is added above the four 
ounces is merely mixed with the alcohol the same as 



SHELLAC COAT 
FOLLOWS 
ALCOHOL STAIN 



THE MANIPULATION OF STAINS 171 

you mix white lead and oil. This is where trouble 
arises. You do not get a deeper shade, but you are 
very apt to get blotchy results. 

For instance, where an alcoholic stain is used, and 
no filler, the next coat is usually shellac. The alcohol 
in the shellac picks up some of the Bismark, and then 
it leaves it in brush marks on the work. But, worse 
than that, Bismark brown is both soluble in alcohol 
and in water, and sparingly soluble in oil. When it 
is used in excess, you are apt to have the same diffi- 
culty without any benefit. Therefore, always see that ^j^^ ^q filler 
the amount of your stain powder used is dissolved. 
After the solution is made, let it stand for an hour, and 
pour it off. 

If you find dregs, you can make up your mind that 
either you haven't given it time enough to dissolve or 
that you are using more powder than necessary. In 
such a case, where the depth of color cannot be obtained 
by the straight Bismark, add spirit black. A very lit- 
tle of this will work wonders on the spirit stain. One 
of the best signs that too much mahogany, or rather 
Bismark, has been used is the bronzing of the aniline 
after the alcohol has evaporated. Of course, this is 
all done away with, as a rule, when the shellac coat is 
applied; but it is just that much more than is required 
and has a tendency to take away the transparency of 
the stain. 

Finishers often have wondered why they have a 
sediment in their mahogany stain. This is usually 
found in the cheaper stain powders where the reduc- 
tion in price has been made up by the addition of dex- 
trin or similar inexpensive fillers. After the advent of 
red and brown, a formula was sold to the manufactur- 
ers in which was given a certain black, scarlet and 
orange, and which makes a very good mahogany. It 
placed in the finisher's hands the colors which go to 
produce almost any shade of mahogany stain. In 
speaking of colors, it may be well to repeat that these 
articles are handled with the general understanding 
that by colors we mean aniline dyes. 

Many of the finishers are using this formula. With 
it they are able to produce and match anything that 



WHY SEDIMENT 
IN MAHOGANY 
STAIN? 



172 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



AMOUNT OF 
STAIN POWDER 
DEPENDS ON 
WOOD AND 
SHADE 



comes along in the mahogany line, but the buyer in 
the office again is looking at price. All he often can 
see is the number of pounds. The result is that this 
formula is supplied at prices varying 100 per cent or 
more. 

The amount of stain powders requisite depends 
upon the kind of wood used and what shade is to be 
made. The colors recommended are water soluble, and 
should be fast to light. It is, however, a fact that many 
finishers have gotten the idea that the addition of a 
little lye helps set the color. This is not the case. If 
the mahogany stain is an acid color, it is absolutely 
wrong to use an alkali, such as caustic potash or soda. 
It merely requires a certain amount of color to neu- 
tralize the potash. It, probably, works out this way. 
The alkali present may help to penetrate. The stain 
seems to take hold of the wood better. 

While this is not to be denied, yet, chemically 
speaking, the proper addition would be bichromate of 
potash. This would chrome the color, would be a nat- 
ural mordant, and would help the penetrating of the 
stain, but not that alone. Bichromate of potash, in 
itself, has a color-giving value, and especially when put 
on mahogany. Many formulas recommend the use of 
one ounce of bichromate to be dissolved in a gallon of 
water before any of the mahogany stains are added. 
The amount of color can be offset by lessening the 
amount of stain powders. 

You will find, too, that the stain will not lift up and 
in sanding not so much of the color will cut away. 
Acetic acid has been recommended. Two ounces to 
the gallon of stain is given by an English writer, but 
from actual tests made from this formula, it is a ques- 
tion, in the writer's mind, whether this is a good for- 
mula. For a time, chromic acid was used by our 
finishers and chemists. This is a red crystal and, in 
itself, makes a good stain; but on account of its cost 
and on account of its corrosive nature, it is being dis- 
continued. When this acid is present, stain cannot 
be kept in metal tanks. The acid is rather uncertain 
in action, and certainly cannot take the place of its 
salt, that is, bichromate of potash. 



STAINS AND 
CLEAR FILLER 
TO BE USED 



CHAPTER XXVI 

QUALITY NEEDED IN STAINING 

WHETHER or not you are using mahogany, or 
whether you are using imitation woods, you 
want to use a transparent stain and a filler 
which will not mud up your woods. There are places transparent 
for water stains, for oil stains, and for spirit stains. 
But it is a peculiar fact that water stains are nearly 
always used on the high grade furniture. The cheaper 
the furniture, the more varied are the products that 
are used to produce the colors. But we are not dis- 
cussing the merits of stains — we are talking about 
transparent stains, and as most of the muddy colors 
are offered on imitation woods, the following procedure 
for birch is recommended : 

For imitation mahogany where birch is used, pre- 
pare the first coat by dissolving a pound of potash in 
50 gallons of water, and enough of bichromate of 
potash to give this water a decided orange brown look. 
When these are thoroughly dissolved, add one-half 
pound of mahogany stain, made up of the red and 
brown, in such proportions as you would use to pro- 
duce the shade you are using, were it used full strength. 
Apply this to the birch furniture. When dry, sand 
down thoroughly ; then apply the stain, made up of the 
stain powder and water only, but with bichromate of 
potash. Shellac with equal parts of orange and white 
shellac, then varnish. 

You will notice that the filler has been omitted. 
When this method is used birch does not require a 
filler. It is because of this filling that so much muddy 
imitation mahogany is on the market. Suppose you 
have a piece of furniture made up of mahogany, a good 
deal of which is veneer, and where the pilasters are of 
birch. Use this method on the birch, fill your mahog- 
any, and we will guarantee that the birch will look 
much better than had it been filled. 

Some of our best manufacturers, according to that 



174 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



LLOTCHY WORK 
RESULTS FROM 
OILING 
BETWEEN 
COATS 



FILLER SHOULD 
MATCH ONLY 
GENERAL SHADE 



traditional method, are still oiling between the stain 
coats. The results are naturally a muddy, blotchy 
imitation looking piece. Cut out the oil coat — it is too 
expensive. Your stain will not take hold evenly and 
you cannot get the transparent effect on the mahogany. 
It is all right to use it on oak, especially in making 
fumed oak with stain, but it is absolutely out of place 
in the production of imitation mahogany especially if 
you want transparent results. 

The same process may be applied to gum wood. A 
thin filler may be used according to the quality of the 
furniture turned out. But the filler employed must 
be transparent. Somebody here is going to say, "How 
can a filler be transparent?" It cannot be, but there 
is such a diflference in filler that we use the term 
''transparent" to designate those that clean up well 
from those that paint. Many a filler has been con- 
demned because the application of it has not been prop- 
erly done. By transparent filler is meant one that is 
made of silex and not one that is made up of starch, or 
whiting, or the very many other substances used for 
filler. We are not discussing the qualities of filler, 
but rather that which in the filler causes the muddy 
results. 

On a finely grained wood the filler should be applied 
thinner, and it must be cleaned off with greater care 
than on a coarse grained wood. On a coarse grained 
wood, such as oak, where the pores are large, and the 
flakes comparatively harder, the filler itself will clean 
up easier. But where the wood is softer, as in gum, 
it will adhere and form a paint-like coat unless care is 
taken in the cleaning up. Do not endeavor to produce 
a color with the filler. The filler should match only 
the general shade of the wood and should not be used 
as a shade producing material like a paint. It is wrong 
to put a black into a mahogany filler. That color is 
too cold. That is one of the troubles with imitation 
mahogany. There is something about it that is cold. 
This is not so with the genuine piece made of the 
natural wood. The filler should be colored with Van 
Dyke brown and rose pirlk which will produce any 
depth of shade desired. When the filler is used 



QUA LITY NEEDED TN STAINING 175 

judiciously and properly cleaned up, the colored wood 
will show through and give you the transparent, and 
not painted, effect that is wanted. 

The foregoing is written on the presumption that 
water stains are used. Where oil stains are used, the 
filler may be omitted on either birch or gum, but care 
must be taken that the shellac coat does not lift the 
color and give you uneven results. Where spirit stains 
are used, a little shellac added to the stain will help to 
bind it so that the subsequent coats will not lift. Oil 
stains are preferable to spirit stains, and usually any 
shade of oil stains may be obtained. The transparency, 
too, may be had. The men applying the oil stain will 
soon learn that they must not lap the color and thus 
avoid uneven results. For quick work for the factory 
turning out qualities, unquestionably the oil stain has 
taken the place of the water stain, but we do not recom- 
mend the mixing of the filler in the oil stain. That is 
where the muddy color is bound to come in, because the 
filler is bound to be deposited in a thin coat over the 
entire work. 

It is impossible to cover every detail. The reader 
looking for specific information must let these chapters 
serve to suggest to him places and points from which 
he is to obtain results. 

I cannot write that which will apply to a chair 
factory making two dollar chairs, and which, at the 
same time, will answer the requirements of a factory 
making high grade bed room suites. But the sugges- 
tion, the methods offered should serve to prompt ideas 
and to bring out results, applicable to each individual 
case. 



FILLER MAY BE 
OMITTED WITH 
BIRCH OR GUM 



CHAPTER XXVII 

UNIFORMITY OF COLOR DESIRABLE 

WATER stains are generally made by putting 
into solution color-giving products with the 
design of having this color permanent and 
uniform. In recent years the anilines have furnished 
practically 95 per cent of this material, the balance 
being made up of such as bichromate of potash, sul- 
phate of iron, chloride of iron, chromic acid, from the 
chemical list, and from the vegetables or plants, such 
as logwood, japonica, chestnut, fustic, bloodroot, mad- 
der, etc. The latter, however, from a scientific point of 
view, are not to be recommended owing to the fact that 
it is rather uncertain as to the strength of color you 
are apt to get by relying on any one sort of material 
for color, as no two growths will give the same per- 
centage of color-giving material, and the finisher who 
makes up a stain of this class must keep doctoring his 
formulas so as to make up the various deficiencies of 
organic color material. 

Even if these are used in connection with chemicals, 
the fact remains that they are rather uncertain, and 
therefore, in the writer's opinion, it is well to eliminate 
them entirely from the stain category. Further, be- 
cause there is not a known shade that cannot be pro-' 
duced, and better at that, with the anilines. The few 
stains that are being made today solely with chemicals 
depend mostly upon the chemical actions that they 
have on the color-giving materials found in the woods, 
such as the oaks, which when coated with various 
strengths of iron solution will produce from light gray 
down almost to black, depending entirely upon the 
amount of tannin (tannic acid) present in the wood, 
and the strength of the iron solution employed. 

It is known, of course, that it does not matter 
whether you use a solution of sulphate of iron or 
chloride of iron, the tannic acid has an affinity for 
the iron and thus replaces whatever acid may have 



MOST WATER 
STAINS ARE 
ANILINES 



178 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



TANNIC ACID 
AN IMPORTANT 
FACTOR 



been combined with it. This would be known to the 
chemist as a chemical change in which an acid reaction 
has taken place and in consequence thereof would come 
under the classification of not only a water stain but 
as an acid stain. On the other hand, take the same 
wood, oak, and apply to it a strong- solution of caustic 
potash, ammonia or caustic soda. These are the stronof- 
er alkalies or solutions of salts of tartar and sal soda 
which are chemically carbonate of potash and carbon- 
ate of soda, making the weaker alkalies. When either 
the stronger or weaker alkaline solutions are employed 
they will produce a yellowish brown down to the darker 
shades of brown, thus again depending upon the color- 
giving material naturally present in the wood. 

From this we see that tannic acid plays a strong 
role in producing colors on oaks. The difficulty that 
arises from depending upon the presence of this color- 
giving material, tannin, is the fact that it is not 
uniformly present in the different boards. The fin- 
isher does not know from how many trees and from 
how many diflferent places the trees from which the 
boards assembled in one piece of furniture have come. 
Therefore, he cannot expect uniform results by de- 
pending upon either the acid or alkaline method for 
producing any desired shade, but he can take advan- 
tage of this natural state of affairs and augment the 
color-producing chemical by supplying the deficiency. 
This is done by coating the wood with a solution of 
tannic acid and then applying the chemical solution, 
all of which, however, must be worked out to a nicety. 
Where a certain piece, say one panel of a table top, does 
not match up, it must be gone over until the desired 
depth of color is produced. 

There is still another method available, and that 
is to employ anilines that permit of mixing with acids 
or acid-reacting chemicals, and it is necessary, there- 
fore, that the finisher supply himself with colors known 
as those belonging to the acid group. Anilines are 
broadly specified as acid colors, basic colors, spirit 
colors, oil colors, and direct colors. For the furniture 
industry the chief interest lies in acid colors with a few 
direct colors that can be mixed with the acid colors 



UNIFORMITY OF COLOR DESIPABLE 179 

but never using a basic, spirit or oil color with either 
of the other two. 

To exemplify the procedure wherein a color is used, 
which is to augment the results obtained when it is 
desired to take advantage of the nature of the wood, 
and the chemical reaction, we would suggest that the 
wood be coated with a 5 per cent solution of tannic or is used 
a 3 per cent solution of pyrogallic acid. After dry, 
sand lightly and apply a coat made up by using four 
ounces of bichromate of potash, two ounces of caustic 
potash to the gallon of water. When this is thoroughly 
dry coat with raw linseed oil. 



WHAT TO DO 
WHEN COLOR 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

USE OF OIL STAINS IN WINTER 

THERE are so many ways of making oil stains, so 
many solvents that are used, that to put one's 
finger on the spot and name the difficulty without 
knowing the formula employed is impossible. Any oil 
is more limpid in warm weather than in cold weather. 
To exemplify this we need but refer to butter. It is 
easily spread in warm weather, but it is more diflficult 
in cold, and it is a peculiar fact that the chill it receives 
from being in the refrigerator is altogether different 
from that of zero weather. 

I bring this to the reader's mind and ask him to 
bear it in mind when using oil stains. If he does so 
he will overcome a good many of the difficulties. For 
in cold weather oil stains do not spread well, do not 
penetrate as well, and if the material to be stained is 
brought in from a cold room, the troubles are more 
numerous. Oil stains, which are built up with resinous 
material, such as japans and cheap varnish, are those 
which will be affected by the cold weather. Not only 
are these difficult to work, but the color is apt to be 
heavier and the brush marks are often lapped. The 
oil stain, in which the finisher incorporates some of the 
filler material, is not excluded, for as a rule a com- 
position stain carries with it a certain amount of this 
resinous material. In consequence, the spreading and 
the penetrating qualities are absolutely different than 
during the summer weather, at which time the material 
works at its best. 

In many formulas that have been given for pro- 
ducing oil stains, in which the solubility of the color 
depends upon the stearic or oleic acids, and where ben- 
zole constitutes the prime solvent, a bit of rosin should 
be added to overcome odor and give color. I refer to 
cases in which the solvents named are used with ar- 
tificial turpentine, by which is meant those distillates 
differing from naphtha in specific gravity, but higher 



EFFECT OF 
CHILL ON 
STAINS 



182 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



THE THREE 
PROMINENT 
SOLVENTS FOR 
STAINS 



CREOSOTE OIL 
DOES NOT 
MAKE GOOD 
STAIN 



than the kerosene series or those made from the asphalt 
beds, and not those made by coloring naphtha and by 
adding fire weed oil. These stains so made, when em- 
ployed in the ordinary temperature have a sufficient 
amount of penetrating proclivities and evaporate so 
fast that the temperature does not materially affect 
them. Their evaporation is so speedy that cool weather 
is rather desirable. The main necessity is a circula- 
tion of air. 

Creosote oil, gas oil or crude carbolic acid are three 
of the prominent solvents used by stain manufacturers, 
especially those making shingle stain. They also enter 
into the furniture stains in various proportions. The 
odor is disguised by the use of oil of citronella or oil of 
mirbane, sometimes a bit of sassafras. The latter two 
are so cheap and so strong that the quantity required 
does not prohibit their use; in fact, they are coal tar 
derivitives. They belong to the artificial class of 
volatile oils. The sassafras never saw the sassafras 
tree. In the stains where the vehicle, or even a part 
thereof, is a creosote oil, difficulties are usually encoun- 
tered in zero weather. 

In a recent circular letter, a clear and concise rea- 
son is given for the difficulties that are now being re- 
ported and complained of by those who are using oil 
stain. A statement is made that "creosote salts are 
just as characteristic of ordinary creosote oils as or- 
dinary salt is characteristic of the ocean water." It 
is claimed further that it is just as foolish to expect 
ordinary creosote oil to make good stains as it would 
be to expect the ocean waters to be good for drinking 
purposes. They are both too salty. When the ther- 
mometer registers close to zero, a barrel of ordinary 
creosote oil, gas oil or crude carbolic acid will show 
from 10 to 20 gallons of residue known as "creosote 
salts" or "crude naphthalene." Good as this "naph- 
thalene" may be as a moth preventive, it is not valu- 
able when you are buying a stain solvent. You do not 
want a third of it to be a solid, and absolutely dele- 
terious to stain materials. Whether this naphthalene 
shows as a residue or is held in solution in the oil as 
is the case in warm weather, the fact remains that the 



LIMPID OILS 
ARE BEST FOR 

STAINS 



USE OF OTL STAINS IN WINTER '_ 183 

naphthalene is there just the same, and is bound to 
cause trouble sooner or later. 

For stain purposes you want oils that are limpid, 
free from these objectionable salts. Every solvent can 
carry in solution only a certain amount of solids. If, 
therefore, it is already burdened with from 10 to 
30 per cent of foreign material, its solvent qualities 
are reduced by that percentage, which is present as a 
bi-product or adulterant. Crude naphthalene is so 
cheap that it does not pay the manufacturers to remove 
it, and thus it usually is sold in the creosote oil. The 
seller of the oil says nothing as to its presence; the 
stain manufacturers knows nothing of its presence until 
a complaint arises or he luckily passes over a period 
of time about in this manner. 

His stains are mixed during warm weather or in a 
warm room, and are consumed in the same manner. If 
a barrel of this oil happens to become chilled and the 
naphthalene crystallizes, he may be lucky again by 
merely being able to draw off the thus inadvertently 
purified creosote oil. Once more any difficulty has been 
avoided. 

While this makes manifest that the high grade 
article is the better, it at once gives us an ordinary 
method for specifying the grade of oil we want and a 
method for detecting the naphthalene. With the naph- 
thalene some chemists claim other injurious compounds 
present are crystallized, thus automatically removing 
themselves. While treating on the subject of crystal- 
lization of the naphthalene, etc., let me say in order getting 
to establish a uniform standard, if the oil is purchased uniformity 
in five gallon, ten gallon, or even barrel lots, it is desir- 
able that a certain definite uniformity of results in 
colors, spreading qualities and penetrating qualities be 
established. Obtain an ordinary hydrometer for heavy 
oils and a hydrometer jar. These should not cost more 
than 75 cents or $1.00. Take the specific gravity or 
reading; then chill the oil, keep it in a freezing tem- 
perature and again take the specific gravity. You will 
find that a certain percentage of solids appears. By 
pouring off the limpid liquid, bringing it to a uniform 
temperature, the reading will be different. The most 



OF RESULTS 



184 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



L'SE OF LOADED 
OIL BRINGS 
ON TROUBLES 



"DOCTORING" 
FORMULAS 



opportune time for this experiment is during the freez- 
ing weather, as a lower and a more steady cold can be 
obtained. In that way the crystallization of the im- 
purities will be more pronounced. Having established 
a specific gravity, and the formulas built thereon, it 
is an easy matter to make this standard a specification 
of future orders. 

I have mentioned that this impurity is injurious to 
oil stains, and I will endeavor without going into tech- 
nicalities to show wherein the use of a loaded oil is 
apt to cause an endless number of troubles which are 
diflficult to locate and which vary in the same ratio as 
the amount of impurities presented. Take, for example, 
a pet formula in which a certain amount of color 
material is given — say eight ounces of mahogany oil 
soluble, one quart of benzole in which to cut it. and 
three quarts of creosote oil. For the sake of argument, 
it is admitted this formula has been working satisfac- 
torily. It was made with a very good grade of creosote 
oil. The next batch comes in during the summer, but 
is loaded with 25 per cent of naphthalene. It works 
a bit heavier, and does not seem to have the penetrating 
power. It needs to be doctored. A little more benzole 
is added, then the color is too light in shade; then a 
little more color is added. Right here is the first mis- 
take. We have left our regular formula and com- 
menced to doctor, and in all probability have not kept 
a good record of the quantities consumed in the doctor- 
ing. The result is that our regular formula is thrown 
in the air, and the foreman finisher's troubles are mul- 
tiplied. 

Still he keeps fussing, and the cold weather comes 
on. Over Sunday the factory becomes cold, the stain 
is chilled, the naphthalene has taken a notion to sep- 
arate itself from the general mixture by crystallizing 
and settling. If this were not all, it might not be so 
bad, but it has such a peculiarity of taking other things 
with it. It removes a portion of the coloring material 
in various percentages ; first, according to the amount 
of naphthalene present, and, second, depending upon 
the color itself. Some coloring material is more readily 
attacked and affected by the crystallization and the 



USE OF OTL STAINS IN WINTER 185 

precipitating process thus enacted than others. 

This stain, which has gone through an ordeal of 
this kind, is absolutely changed. If the change be 
recognized, there is an opportunity for more doctoring. 
But the chances are that the stain will be allotted to 
the workman, and being thinner will penetrate deeper. 
This will help to retain the original color, but more 
likely the color will be found several shades lighter 
than it was intended to be. ^^^ solvents 

Were this the only difficulty to be attributed to this should be 
series of solvents, and which I claim can be avoided pj^^g pnou 
by stipulating that this series of oil solvents be free naphthalene 
from naphthalene, it would not be so bad. The one 
objectionable feature in the disposition of naphthalene 
is that it forms a coat of non-drying, oil appearing, 
waxy surface where the stain has been applied. It 
depends in great measure upon the kind of wood to 
which it is applied, to the amount of gas oil present in 
the stain, and the diiferent solvents used in conjunc- 
tion. The greasy, non-drying propensities of a gas oil 
stain often have been attributed to the stearic acid 
which is one of the constituents of oil soluble colors. 
But the truth is that the oil gave greater trouble, and 
that without its use there would have been sufficient 
penetrating material present to completely distribute 
the stearic acid in the pores of the wood. 

Many a finisher has experienced trouble in the oil 
stains "lifting" when applying the shellac. This is 
often due to conditions as described above. The alcohol 
attacks the naphthalene and with it comes the colors ^„^„„_ ,., 
and the attendmg troubles by the use or an oil stam m "lifting" 
which a percentage of naphthalene is present. I do 
not condemn the use of this series of solvents; I 
merely draw out the difficulties that arise during cold 
weather. They can be avoided, and I trust that I have 
made it sufficiently clear so that the finisher will know 
and understand the means at hand to obviate the pos- 
sibilities of trouble of this order. 

A permanent finish never can be made where there 
is a large amount of this gas oil used. Understand me, 
I mean the gas oil as usually sold. To exemplify this, 
you have seen a house built where the shingles were 



186 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



PERMANENT 
FINISH PRE- 
VENTED BY USE 
OF GAS OIL 



stained and after a season there was hardly any color 
left. That was due to the naphthalene present in the 
creosote oil. Of course, had these shingles been treated 
as furniture is usually treated, the trouble would not 
have been so apparent, but there will be no permanent 
oil stain where the main solvent is one of these oils, 
unless you insist upon the same being free from naph- 
thalene. 

I have endeavored to emphasize these points, be- 
cause many of you have used this material and have 
heard nothing of it after it left the factory. People 
are becoming more critical ; they know there is a vast 
difference in the quality of finish, its durability and 
general appearance. The foregoing should help the 
reader to remove a possible danger and obstacle in 
attaining good results. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

SPECIAL ENGLISH OAK FINISHES 

THE average foreman is not located in the furni- 
ture center and, therefore, has not the advantage 
of his more fortunate brothers through the inter- 
change of ideas. The assistance obtainable through 
coming in contact with the diversified methods of fin- 
ishing afforded to those situated in the midst of an 
industry, he is denied. This chapter is written to give 
an insight into the methods and procedure usually em- 
ployed in the making of these special finishes. 

Jacobean is usually produced by the use of an oil 
stain. Its shade of a reddish, golden brown, with high 
light effects, has been pretty well standardized. The 
color can be readily produced by the use of a brown oil 
soluble color, which has a tint toward the orange. 
Usually an oil solution is made, or, rather, the color 
is dissolved in hot turpentine to which two pounds or 
more of black, preferably drop black, ground in japan, 
are added to a three gallon mixture. After the color is 
thoroughly established, the stain is applied with a fitch 
brush, but care must be taken not to apply it too 
heavily, for when it dries the stain darkens consider- 
ably. The high lights are produced by cleaning off the 
stain in the center of the panels, etc. It is entirely up 
to the foreman to get the effect. He must understand 
Jacobean effect and carry out the idea of the period. 
The design of the furniture usually helps him out. 
There is no difficulty in matching the color. A good 
golden oak oil stain will make a first-class base. A 
little experimenting with the application will make him 
proficient in that part of the procedure, and if in pro- 
ducing the high lights too much stain is removed, it is 
easily replaced, as the entire color scheme is produced 
before the finish is applied. 

Kenilworth, which is very similar in appearance, 
is made by first fuming the wood. Load the fuming 
box at night and in the morning the wood will be suf- 



INSIGHT INTO 
METHODS OF 
SPECIAL 
FINISHES 



PRODUCING 
HIGH LIGHTS 



188 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



KENILWORTH 
FINISH 



16th 

century and 
stratford 



ficiently fumed to proceed. Then stain, using fitch 
brush, and allow the stain to dry 24 hours. This stain 
is practically the same color as that of Jacobean. The 
high lighting is done by using sandpaper and then 
dusting. Give one coat of white shellac, sand smooth 
and apply a flat finish. The selection of the color of 
this stain, and depth of shade, depends upon the Kenil- 
worth that you are trying to produce. A golden oak 
oil soluble stain is usually used. But every foreman 
finisher knows that a good deal of his shade depends 
upon the amount of turpentine that is used in cutting 
the stain powder. To lay down a definite formula in 
this case would be the recommendation of certain 
makes of golden oak oil stain. The selection of this, 
therefore, is left to the finisher. If, however, he wishes 
to prepare his own golden oak oil stain, this can be done 
readily by taking oil black as a base and adding orange, 
yellow and red until the shade of golden oak desired is 
produced. It is not necessary to produce the shade 
of golden oak that is used in this, but better to produce 
the shade of color that you wish in making your Kenil- 
worth. 

Another formula would be to dissolve oil black in 
turpentine and add it to asphaltum. This, however, 
would require more experimenting than to take the 
colors themselves, and would be apt to prove uncer- 
tain, as the diflferent lots of asphaltum vary in color. 

The finish known as Sixteenth Century is produced 
in a similar manner, with the exception of the fuming 
proposition, which is embodied in the production of 
Kenilworth. 

Stratford oak is produced in a very similar manner. 
After the work is fumed a coat of dark brown is ap- 
plied. When dry, a filler that has a slight pinkish 
cast is given, not with the idea of filling the wood but 
to give the pores a pinkish color. Then give two 
coats of wax. 



CHAPTER XXX 

BIRCH AND ITS VARIOUS FINISHES 

BIRCH, one of our well known native woods, is 
slowly but surely becoming recognized as a 
strong factor in wood industries. It has a good 
many qualities that are suited for cabinet work, notable birch as a 
among which are its strength, and that it gives a good strong 
surface and sands well. In finishing, the grain does <^^^^n^t wood 
not raise much, and the price also goes to give it con- 
sideration. It is the writer's opinion that, inasmuch 
as factories have undertaken the experimenting with 
this wood for furniture, its use will become large. 

Birch, as found in the market, is rarely quartered. 
There must be a reason for this, and there is a grow- 
ing belief this style of sawing will be adopted as the 
demand for the wood increases, especially if it is to be 
employed in the better grades of furniture. For com- 
mon and medium grades, it is most desirable, and if 
selected stock could be had, or the curly birch were 
plentiful, undoubtedly we would see more birch fur- 
niture. 

I believe that the one peculiarity of this wood can 
best be explained in the word of a man who has had 
considerable experience with it. He says: "The only 
difficulty I have found in employing birch ie the fact difficulty in 
that often it seems to grow both ways; that is, when matching 
you look down a piece this way, the finish is elegant, birch 
turn it about and it is dark." This is due to the fact 
that birch often presents end growth, which is very 
susceptible to the stain, and, of course, will show up 
much darker than the rest of the work; not at all a 
pleasant feature when it makes its appearance in the 
center of a panel, or some large surface, for we all 
know that high grade furniture depends upon its uni- 
formity of the wood in each individual piece. It is a 
question in my mind whether a good deal of this could 
not be done away with if the wood were quartered. 

Birch makes an elegant wood for chairs. It takes 



190 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



BIRCH NOT 
ADAPTED TO 
GRAY FINISH 



PLEASING 
SHADES ARE 
PRODUCED 
ON BIRCH 



finishes most beautifully. I believe a mistake has been 
made in the attempt to make a gray color for it to 
imitate gray maple, or the various grays that have 
been put on oak. The texture of the wood is not 
adapted for a good gray. The gray that can be pro- 
duced may suit some people, but it will never be in 
competition with maple or oak for gray finishes. There 
is a certain vein in birch that when stained persists in 
giving a yellowish tone which clashes with the gray, 
and my experiments have shown that an entirely dif- 
ferent line of endeavor should be employed for pro- 
ducing a finish that will help to popularize birch as a 
cabinet wood. 

It has been put out as "fumed birch," and, consid- 
ering the innovation, has been quite successful. The 
experiments that were made and the formulas obtained 
are quite interesting. Beautiful satiny brown finishes 
are quite possible, then if the laying of the wood is 
given suflficient attention so that similar grains and 
figures are joined together, the natural beauties of the 
wood will help to augment the general results. It has 
been found that the coating of the wood with a tannic 
acid solution, and when thoroughly dried with solution 
of bichromate of potash or bichromate of soda, which 
at this time is 'much cheaper, produces a beautiful and 
pleasing shade. 

Another formula, which is very similar to fumed 
oak, gives a good fumed oak color. By this color is. 
meant the shade of brown that is no-sy called "standard 
fumed oak." The first coat is made up of pyrogallic 
and tannic acids, one-half ounce of each to the gallon; 
then, without sanding, a second coat made as follows 
is applied : Two ounces of dried carbonate of soda, 
one ounce of bichromate of soda in a gallon of water, 
to which is added aynmoniacal solution of copper 
sulphate. This is made as follows. One ounce of sul- 
phate of copper dissolved in eight ounces of water, 
to which is added 26 degree ammonia, until a precipi- 
tate is formed, and then continue to add the ammonia 
until this precipitate is redissolved. The ammoniacal 
solution of copper is added to the gallon of carbonate 
and bichromate of soda solution. This second coat is 



BIRCH AND ITS VARIOUS FINISHES 191 

applied over the acid coat with the resultant brown, 
sanded slightly, and a very thin coat of white shellac 
applied, and waxed. The best velvety or satiny finish 
is obtained with a Circassian coat varnish, or a similar 
product. It is found that most any shade of brown can 
be made on birch ; in fact, any stain that one may 
desire may be applied, but the idea is to get a color 
that will go with the trade. 

There is more cheap and medium priced furniture 

BIRCH" TAKF^ 

made than high grade furniture, and the consumption 

1- J.1- 1 T • J? J. • 1 ^ • • ANY SHADE 

by the public is lar greater m number oi pieces m brown 
these two named classes. Birch furniture made in 
popular designs, and supplied to the trade with a 
popular finish, such as its higher priced competitor, 
fumed oak, finds a good market. 

Like mahogany, birch fills a certain place in the 
construction of some grades of furniture, especially 
in such parts where strength is desired, and so it has 
become natural for the manufacturer consuming birch 
in this manner to say that he wants a stain for birch. 
By that he means a stain that, when applied to the 
birch, will harmonize with the stain that he is putting 
on that portion of the piece which is made up of 
ma,hogany, whether solid or veneer. Now that brown 
mahogany is in vogue, it is only necessary to take 
the same material and apply it heavier to the birch, 
but it would be better to make a stronger solution for 
the birch wood. A great mistake has been that fin- „„^,„,, ,,. 

... r'^^• 1 1 • 1 • 1 1 /^ BROWN MA- 

ishers will persist m filling the birch with the rest of hoganyhard 
the piece. This ha,s a tendency to give the birch a tq produce 
muddy appearance. If you have a good penetrating on birch 
stain, the color will be deep enough and the surface 
smooth enough so that filling is absolutely useless. 
Should it be that the stain does not take hold, add an 
ounce of acetic acid to each quart of stain. This will 
assist the stain to penetrate to such an extent that the 
color will be uniform and obviate the use of any filler. 
Undoubtedly brown mahogany is a finish that will 
be more typical of mahogany, and in consequence more 
difficult to produce satisfactorily on birch. That would 
be a reason for the production of a pleasing shade of 
brown and make it typical of birch. Gum, when 



192 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



BIRCH MAKES 
BEAUTIFUL 
IMITATION OF 
CHERRY 



BIRCH CAN 
BE FUMED 



slightly stained, and given a coat of orange shellac and 
dark varnish, produces a beautiful brown. It is a dif- 
ferent shade of brown; it carries with it just enough 
originality to differentiate it from other woods, and 
therefore, in the making of a finish for birch, there is 
a possibility of striking a shade that will typify birch 
as an individual wood, which will later become popular 
in its own cast. 

If curly birch were plentiful, the plain wood would 
not have to be considered now. That is not the case, 
and as long as we realize that birch is becoming a 
factor in ca,binet woods, it is best at once to establish 
a finish for it. Birch will make beautiful imitation 
cherry. Care must be taken, however, not to give it a 
red tone, for cherry, when finished as it should be, has 
a very pleasing, mild color, due only to its own con- 
stituents. The trouble is, and has been, that in attempt- 
ing to imitate cherry, the results have been too much 
on the red lines. A dark toona mahogany finish by 
some would be called a cherry when put on birch. 
The stain to be employed on birch to produce cherry, 
above all things, must be free from any sediment. It 
must be a penetrating stain, and made up of strong 
material so that a small quantity of stain powder will 
give the desired color. 

It is not at all impossible to fume birch, but it does 
require a coat of tannic or pyrogallic acid, or a com- 
bination of both of the acids to produce a good fumed 
effect. Then, before a finish is put on, the wood is 
given a thorough oiling; this permitted to dry for 24 
hours, or if a kiln is employed, 12 hours, then proceed 
with the regular finishing. Birch will give a beautiful 
fumed color. There is no more ideal wood for hotel 
furniture than this birch. It is durable, hard, and will 
stand and endure the rough usage to which hotel fur- 
niture is subjected. 



CHAPTER XXXI 

THE FINISHING OF AMERICAN WALNUT 

SINCE our native walnut has again become popular, 
the finisher is confronted with new problems, 
one of which is the correctness of the color in 
which this wood should be finished. One of the prob- ^^^'^ ^^ ^^^'^ 
lems is due to the fact that manufacturers have ^^^ " ^^^ 
bleached the wood, and this bleaching process has been walnut? 
carried on by different methods and to different de- 
grees. We are just as much at sea relative to the cor- 
rect shade for American walnut as we have been on 
many of the other new styles of finishes. Uniformity, 
of course, is almost a necessity. That nature does 
not produce her wares upon certain definite standards 
is unfortunate. Black American walnut varies the 
same as any other wood, but being a dark wood we find 
a greater amount of difference in the shade, probably 
due to the locality from which the tree was taken. 

In conversation with one of the best foreman fin- 
ishers, he said that he did not know why walnut should 
be bleached, unless it is that some one, somewhere, ran 
onto some light wood and in order to match it, bleached 
the next piece, and in this manner the lighter shades 
became known and, of course, imitated. As long as 
a light shade of American walnut is supplied, the fin- 
ishing department of necessity will be compelled to 
furnish the lighter shade, and to produce it with what- 
ever meams at hand. Should the tide of favor turn to 
a darker finish, it would be easier to meet the demands, 
as in that case it would reouire only the staining of 
the wood to the depth of the darker finish. 

I was shown some bleached American walnut that 
was of a lighter shade than Circassian, and it may be 
that the attempt is being made to bleach the American 
walnut so it can be used in place of Circassian. If a 
process can be simplified so that the work may be done 
in the finishing room, it may open one more avenue 
for the consumption of a native wood. This piece of 



MAY BE USED 
BLEACHED 



194 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



ADVISES USE 
OF RICH BROWN 
WITH VAN 
DYKE FILLER 



HOW THE 
BLEACHING 
IS DONE 



wood was about one-fourth inch thick, and was 
bleached at least one-sixteenth inch, in fact, the color 
was much lighter than Circassian. The method just 
now is unknown, but we hope to be able to give it to 
our readers after further experimentation. What the 
manufacturer will call this bleached wood is a problem, 
and what there is to be gained by the introduction of 
such an extreme, remains to be seen. Woods mellow 
with age, and I cannot imagine anything more har- 
monious than a good rich, brown finish on American 
walnut. My conception for a finish for this native 
wood would be a rich brown, transparent color, with a 
Van Dyke filler, well cleaned oflF, two coats of oil, and 
varnish without shellac, rubbed dull. This would pro- 
duce something that would have an air of elegance 
about it, especially if the design were commensurate. 

Light colored woods, to the writer's mind, unless 
the design alone can produce it, will not give the lasting 
qualifications that a piece of furniture should have to 
bespeak refinement. It must be remembered in the fin- 
ishing room that it is easier to match shades that are 
darker than the natural wood, than to attempt to match 
shades by a bleaching process. 

The manufacturer alive to the situation will pro- 
duce in his line something of the darker shades, and I 
am willing to prophesy that the darker shade will be 
the one that will find favor with the home furnisher. 
Hotels may desire the special bleached finish, which is 
another reason why American walnut designed for the 
home should be different than that turned out for pub- 
lic places. The production of the bleached finish is 
usually attained by first bleaching the wood with the 
several bleaching compounds that are at hand. Chlori- 
nated lime, ofttimes misnamed chloride of lime, is a 
favorite bleaching agent. It can be purchased on the 
market in tin cans, the contents of which is diluted 
with water, and the work coated with this mixture. 
The chlorine gas retained is the bleaching agent. 

A very eflficient method, but which is now pro- 
hibitive owing to the price of material, is the w^e of 
permanganate of potash and oxalic acid or hypo- 
sulphite of soda. The potash is a purple chemical, 



THE FINISHING OF AMERICAN WALNUT 195 

giving first a purple color to the wood, changing to a 
brown. The bleaching is then accomplished by the 
second coat of oxalic acid. Oxalic acid is a white crys- 
tal, of which about a 5 per cent solution is required 
to overcome the permanganate of potash. A better, 
but cheaper, reagent for bleaching the permanganate 
is the hyposulphite of soda. This is an American prod- 
uct and can be bought for about three cents per pound. 
Unfortunately, it has little or no effect when applied 

, ., , « OTHER 

by itselt. 

-^ METHODS OF 

The use of peroxide of hydrogen gives very good bleaching 
results, especially if this material can be obtained 
freshly made, but it is rather expensive, yet very cer- 
tain. A good stock solution to have in every finishing 
department is a solution known as chlorinated soda. 
It is a simple but efficient bleaching agent, and while 
not as rich in chlorine as the chlorinated lime, owing 
to its alkalinity, it has a peculiar effect upon the wood, 
which seems to give the small amount of chlorine pres- 
ent a greater opportunity for bleaching. Then, too, 
if first applied, followed with peroxide of hydrogen, a 
very effective bleaching process will be obtained. 

There are a few chemical processes that will bleach 
wood, but it would be difficult to employ them in the 
woodworking industry. They may prove satisfactory 
in the laboratory, but not practical in the finishing 
room. After the wood has been bleached, the usual 
method is to give it a stain made up of walnut crystals, 
to which is added a small quantity of a solution of finish on 
nigrosine and mahogany red. At best, this is a weak American 
stain. The red gives it the warm tone that seems to walnut is 
be so desirable in the production of the present "^^^ scant 
American walnut finish. The amount of real finishing 
on American walnut is rather scant, although the bet- 
ter grade of furniture seems to carry with it a little 
more varnish. It does seem a pity to take the elegant 
design and made-up pieces of furniture and send them 
out with a coat of shellac and a coat of inexpensive 
flat finish. 

Alpine walnut is a beautiful new shade used mostly 
in connection with burl walnut. It is almost a natural 



196 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

color, being a light brownish green. The finish is pro- 
duced as follows: 

A^"'^^ 1. Stain with Alpine walnut stain two ounces to 

WALNUT Qj^g gallon of water. 

2. Sand and fill with walnut filler, using a dark 
shade. 

3. Coat with three coats of white shellac, or wood 
lacquer, and rub to a smooth surface with pumice and 
oil. 



CHAPTER XXXII 



STAINING WILLOW, REED AND CANE 



IN COLORING 



TO PRODUCE colors on willow, the operation must 
be divided in two distinct processes, coloring by- 
immersing in hot liquids, or staining by applying 
the color in a liquid form ; it not being our purpose to two processes 
suggest the producing colors by painting or enameling 

In the manufacture of willow furniture, where a willow 
colored willow is to be produced, the willow usually is 
prepared by putting it through a bleaching process, 
which is subjecting it to the action of lime water, after 
which it is dried and found to be more susceptible to 
stains or colors, whether aniline or chemical, or a com- 
bination of the same. 

The coloring of willow can be carried out better by 
applying the regular dye method than by attempting 
to produce a color by simply immersing in a colored 
solution. 

The browns are the more desired shades, and un- 
doubtedly those produced by chemicals are the more 
satisfactory. The formulas in which are given meth- 
ods for the production of browns, by the use of per- 
manganate of potash, bichromate of potash, pyrogal- 
lic acid, etc., when applied to the coloring of reed, will 
produce many shades of brown, the intensity of which 
may be augmented by the addition of aniline. 

The temperature has a good deal to do with the 
penetration, and should be kept at 150 degrees Fahren- 
heit, and the stain of such strength that excessive dye- 
ing is not necessary, as a subsequent drying process 
will take much more time where the reed has been 
completely saturated in the dye bath. 

Beautiful gray shades may be obtained by immers- 
ing in a solution of tannic acid and in a second solution 
of iron chloride, the strength of each producing the 
shade of gray. Where grays are to be produced, it is 
well to select well bleached reed, as the natural color 
of the reed does not give dainty shades of gray. 



the question 
of various 

SHADES 



198 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



ALKALIES AND 
THEIR AFTER 
EFFECT 



SPIRIT SOLUBLE 
COLORS USED 
FOR SHADES 



Maroons, dark reds, and kindred shades may be 
obtained by the use of alkaline solutions of logwood. 
Two methods are used. One, to boil the reed in a 
strong solution of log wood extract and then passing it 
through a strong alkaline solution such as sal soda, 
which on account of its cheapness will be preferred. 
After the desired shade is obtained, care must be taken 
that the alkali is washed out thoroughly so that no 
detrimental after-effects are to be expected from the 
presence of alkali. 

The production of satisfactory results upon reed 
or willow depends upon the penetrating qualities of the 
sta:in. As experience has shown, this material does 
not take the color uniformly. The incorporation of 
acetone in small quantities, carbolic acid, acetic acid, 
or oxalic acid in their order named, will greatly assist 
the penetration of the stain. Certain cases will answer 
to the addition of a small bit of alcohol to the stain. 
An acid solution of an aniline may be found not to 
take hold at certain places, whereas, the addition of a 
small quantity of alcohol will prepare the way for the 
stain. 

It is not necessary to enumerate specific formulas 
for the production of any stain. Suffice it to say that 
any aniline dye generally used in producing stain, the 
solution acidified, will produce the stain the shade of 
which is controlled by the material used. In cases 
where absolutely no results are obtained by the simple 
application of the stain, a fairly good color may be 
made by using spirit soluble colors, producing the 
shade you want and adding a pound of gum shellac 
to each gallon of such alcoholic stain. This gum will 
hold the colors in place and permit the subsequent 
finish to be applied. 

Of late years it has become fashionable to stain; 
it really ought to be called coloring. Cane panels, etc., 
have become quite fashionable in modern furniture, 
and it is desirable to give this cane an harmonious color, 
a color that will conform with the style and general 
shade of the finish. It is practically impossible, owing 
to the glossy, hard surface presented by cane to stain 
it with any degree of uniformity or success. 



STAINING WILLOW, REED AND CANE 199 

It has been found expedient, therefore, to prepare 
a mixture of colors, using the pigments ground in oil 
or japan in such proportions as will produce the shade 
in harmony with the finish of the furniture. The pro- 
cedure is as follows: 

Before applying any color, give the cane a coat of 
japan, being careful not to allow an excess to be ap- 
plied. This coat forms a body upon which may be 
spread uniformly the color coat, made up of japan and 
for the colors of umbers, siennas, etc. This coat must 
be thin, and carry merely enough body to uniformly 
spread the color, it being advantageous to repeat the 
operation rather than to attempt to put on a heavy 
coat. The final finish may be obtained by using a flat, 
or Mission finish. 

There is no established standard for this work and 
each artisan will have to work out his own salvation, 
where confronted with work of this kind. 

The use of a bit of varnish with the japan and 
pigment coat may be found necessary, but whatever 
is applied, it should be short on oil, and quick-drying. 
The work must not be gone over, as that has a tendency 
to lift the pigment from one place and to deposit it 
on another. 



HOW TO GET 
A MIXTURE OF 
COLORS 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

BROWNS FROM TANNIN AND POTASH 

ON application of one to two ounces of tannic acid 
dissolved in a half gallon to a gallon of water 
to oak or many of the other cabinet woods, and 
after sanding apply the piece in warm solution of two 
ounces bichromate of potash or soda, and raising to a 
temperature of 100 to 125 degrees, there will be pro- 
duced by the aid of the carbonic acid gas in the air, 
beautiful brown tints, all of which may be varied ac- 
cording to the strength of material employed. 

This process will produce pleasing shades on gum, 
pine, and other soft woods. On soft woods it has the 
faculty to bring out the figure, the flakes producing a 
more attractive coloration than an aniline stain, the 
surface having the appearance and the effect of a dis- 
tinct coloration of its fibers, especially the flakes. The 
effect is of greatly enhancing the characteristics of the 
particular growth of each wood. 

In applying this method to hard woods, care must 
be taken to obtain uniform application so that no 
blotchy work may result. If it is desired to obtain a 
more reddish brown cast, this may be done by adding 
pyrogallic acid to the tannic solution. It is well to 
prepare the acid solution fresh when desired for use. 



GETTING TINT 
DEPENDING ON 
STRENGTH OF 
MATERIALS 



COLD WATER 
STAINS 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

BROWNS FROM POTASSIUM OF PERMANGANATE 

POTASSIUM permanganate is a violet crystal, and 
its stain qualifications depend upon its peculiar- 
ities of producing brown shades when it comes in 
contact with organic substances, or on exposure to ^"_^_ ^_°^5_?^ 
the air. 

The solution should always be prepared with cold 
water. The application of this stain should be made 
with a sponge and not with a brush, as the bristles 
will not withstand the action of the permanganate. 
When first applied to the wood, it will give a violet 
shade which will gradually turn to a nut brown, and 
of a depth in direct ratio to the percentage of perman- 
ganate employed in the solution. Where a deep brown 
shade is desired, a second coat will usually produce 
results. 

The use of permanganate is a very handy method 
for producing brown, particularly where it is desired 
to match some other finish, as in the case where too 
dark a shade of brown may have been produced; it 
may be lightened in shade by the sponging with any 
mineral acid, or solutions of sodium hyposulphite. 
This method will be recognized as the same as that 
given under Bleaching, and often taken advantage of 
for the imitation of inlay wood, accomplished in the 
following manner: After the entire piece has been 
stained brown, paste strips of paper to the surface, 
leaving such parts exposed which should represent the 
inlay; then treat this exposed surface to the action of 
hyposulphite of soda, when an absolutely white wood 
surface will be obtained. Then the paper is removed 
by laying wet cloths or blotters thereon, which will 
soften the adhesive and permit the paper to be taken 
off. Lightly sand, and it is ready for the regular fin- 
ishing work. 



CHAPTER XXXV 

FADS AND FANCIES IN FINISHES 

SINCE the introduction of the Gift Shops, stores 
that usually offer the unique, and things out of 
the ordinary, there is being created a demand for 
small odd pieces suitable for gifts. The workers have oak adapts 
taken advantage of silver gray, kaiser gray, and sev- itself to 
eral other grays, making the goods mostly out of. oak. novelties 
Probably no wood offers the possibility of a larger 
variety than oak. By taking advantage of its beautiful 
flake, and large pores, staining the wood, and produc- 
ing a contrast effect by filling the pores with various 
pigments, there can be produced an endless variety of 
pleasing and attractive effects. In order to get the 
best effects by the introduction of the various fillers, it 
becomes necessary to have a comprehension of the stain 
materials employed. 

For instance, it is an easy matter to color the wood, 
and then to put some radically different color or filler 
into the pores, but that does not accomplish the artistic 
effect, nor that pleasing soft tone which will go a long 
way towards making a piece of furniture or a novelty 
fascinating. On the contrary, the more one studies a 
creation of this sort, the less it gains in favor. The 
ground work must be stained so that the flake sur- 
rounding the large pores will take on a correspondingly 
definite color — a color which is in harmony with this 
filler; a color which in turn is to produce a contrast 
that at once makes it attractive and pleasing to the 
eye. It is, therefore, necessary that the stain present 
a sharp contour about the flake, and be softened down 
to the center of the flake, leaving the appearance of a 
clear surface. 

Naturally one would select for this purpose quarter 
sawed oak, so as to take advantage of the characteris- 
tics of the wood. The wood should be sponged to raise 
the pores, and then thoroughly sanded. If the pores 
are not sufficiently opened by this process, the result 



206 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



OAK PERMITS 
OF ARTISTIC 
COLORING 



CLASSIFICATION 
OF COLORINGS 



desired can be accomplished by going over the work 
with a picking brush, and thoroughly dusting it off. 
Then the stain is applied, and this should be done 
thoroughly. The application of a stain cannot be called 
thoroughly applied if the wood be simply covered and 
colored. If a depth of color is to be produced it is bet- 
ter done by the application of two weak coats, than by 
one strong coat. There will be less danger of cutting 
through when sanding, for the simple reason that these 
fancy finishes are seldom more than shellaced or waxed. 

Oak presents an almost unlimited amount of possi- 
bilities for artistic colorings. Especially do the chem- 
icals aid us in producing absolutely permanent stains. 
This is fortunate, especially in finishes, where the pro- 
tecting coats, such as two or three coats of varnish, are 
not used, but instead a thin coat of oil and a bit of wax. 
The following classification will assist those who may 
be called upon to produce these color effects. The filling 
is made an after-treatment, but the similarity of pro- 
cedure make it possible to cover all cases in a few para- 
graphs, and will be given in a separate list. 

First — By the use of iron, as iron sulphate or iron 
chloride, in its various dilutions, grays can be produced 
in any depth of color. The color may be evened up by 
penciling with a weak solution of tannic acid. 

Second — Rich browns can be produced by boiling 
catechu and bichromate of potash, and applying the 
stain, one or two coats. 

Third^The Persian brown by applying a solution 
of permanganate of potash, permitting it to stand six 
or eight hours, when the second coat should be applied. 

Fourth — Old Oak — To each pint of water add one 
ounce of carbonate of potash (salts of tartar). When 
dissolved, mix with an equal quantity of ammonia 
water. Stain the wood, and let stand for 24 hours. 
Then apply a solution of sulphate of iron, one ounce 
to the gallon of water. This will produce, according 
to the strengths employed, a great variety of oaks. 
The process may be carried until darkest shade of 
brown is produced. 

Fifth — Bichromate of potash gives yellow tints ; if 
carbonate of potash be added, lighter shades of brown. 



FADS AND FANCIES IN FINISHES 207 

Sixth — The application of pyrogallic acid, one ounce 
to the gallon. This can be applied to the sponging 
coat. The second coat made of one ounce of nigrosine 
to the gallon of water, and if a deeper brown is desired, 
add a small percentage of the iron sulphate solution. 

Seventh — The application of a tannic acid solution 
and a subsequent coating with logwood extract, which 
has been dissolved in hot water, and to which has been 
added a 5 per cent solution of sulphate of copper. 

Eighth — Any 'aniline color that will produce a many 

staple green, such as acid green, applied to the variations 
strength of the desired color, and then coated with a 
5 per cent solution of picric acid. 

Ninth — Acid green solution, sulphate of iron solu- 
tion, nigrosine solution, to produce the deep and olive 
green. 

Tenth — Acid green, picric acid and sulphate of cop- 
per, on sulphate of iron to produce gun metal effect. 

In giving the above, let it be distinctly understood 
that the finisher can vary his shades according to the 
strength. But the key given will produce absolutely 
transparent, penetrating and fast to light colors. Each 
stain will affect the flake in such a manner as to be 
co-ordinate with the filler. 

In preparing the filler for these kinds of finishes, 
it is to be expected that they will be made of har- 
monious tones. The gray, from a light shade of gray 
which will be filled with white filler mostly, and which, 
according to taste, can be darkened with drop black; fillers must 
the browns, in contrast with the shade of the wood ; be of har- 
the greens mostly made by coloring the ordinary filler monious tones 
with chrome green and darkened with drop black. But 
where the correct shade of green cannot be produced 
by the use of chrome green, color the filler by the use 
of ultra-marine blue, and chrome yellow, and getting 
it dark enough by the addition of black. 

One of the most beautiful eflfects produced and 
which has not been taken up in our country to any 
degree, is gun metal, so called because a metallic effect 
is produced by the filler, which is made up of oxide of 
lead, commonly known as plumbago or graphite. This 
filler coating should have enough japan to hold it, as 



208 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



GUN METAL A 

BEAUTIFUL 

EFFECT 



MAPLE OFFERS 
VARIOUS WAYS 
OF COLORING 



when it is applied it is more difficult to hold in place 
than any of the other pigments. It should be used in 
a very fine powder, so that in applying it to the wood. 
a small amount of it will be drawn out of the pore and 
blended over the flake, which will then produce the gun 
metal effect, but still bring out the beautiful flakes of 
the oak. 

The many novel shades and finishes that can be 
produced on maple and oak are finding their way slowly 
but surely into the market. Especially are these woods 
and finishes popular in the finishing of cafes, lobbies, 
store fixtures, window decorations, etc. France is buy- 
ing our bird's-eye maple. In that country the most 
delicate shades are produced, especially in the gray. 
The tensile strength of the wood admirably adapts it 
to many of the dainty lines put out by the French man- 
ufacturers. The satiny finish aff"orded by French pol- 
ish still holds forth in some of their markets. The tra- 
ditional clannishness clings and the impress of the 
Louis periods furniture, we are told, has a preference 
there, rather than the heavy lines of our Mission. The 
French get more out of a board than we do. It is 
only to be expected that the same daintiness of color 
would prevail. 

With maple there are various ways for the produc- 
tion of the color. At one time, the wood could be pur- 
chased already colored, but for the occasional produc- 
tion of this color on maple, nigrosine, jet black, paper 
black, anilines are the series which will make a fairly 
good gray. These are all water soluble, and should be 
applied hot. It will be found that, when applied cold, 
the color will have to be put on so sparingly in order 
to produce a light gray that the yellowish tint of the 
maple will show, and an uneven color will be the result. 
Only a very little color to the gallon of water is re- 
quired. Were it not for the fact that the spirit stain 
fades, it would make a better gray. A very pleasing 
and, undoubtedly, the best results are obtained by the 
use of iron salt in conjunction with a good permanent 
black aniline. For the finisher to have a uniform result, 
one to be relied upon, a certain amount of precaution 
is necessary in the use of the iron. Sulphate of iron 



FADS AND FANCIES IN FINISHES 209 

is not a staple salt and, therefore, in using it, it is 
better to buy the dried sulphate of iron rather than the 
crystal, or, if this is not at hand, to purchase the solu- 
tion of chloride of iron which is of definite strength. 
The shade to be produced is then merely a matter of 
quantity. 

To avoid the bluish cast which is sometimes apt 
to result from the use of the iron and the nigrosine, a 
bit of orange should be used, and will overcome it. All 
shades of gray can be produced in this way. The fine 
grain of the maple makes it necessary that the finish be 
of an absolute uniformity of shade. The heart of the 
maple tree cannot be used in the making of a piece of 
furniture, as its brown shade cannot be overcome by 
so delicate a color as gray. It cannot be bleached sat- 
isfactorily, and when it does appear in the made-up 
piece, it would be better to stain it as an imitation 
mahogany. 

After the stain has been applied, it should be al- 
lowed to stand at least 24 hours ; but, better yet, 48 
hours. Then let it be sanded with a very fine sandpaper, 
and polished with parafl^ne wax. This wax is best 
applied by melting it and thinning with a substitute 
turpentine such as turpaline, or terrabentine, which 
has no color. It can be obtained easily by demanding 
the pure article. This substitute is placed on the mar- 
ket in such a manner as to give it the physical appear- 
ance as well as odor of the genuine turpentine. This 
is done by adding a quantity of regular turpentine, 
sometimes a bit of rosin, and fire-weed oil. None of 
these, however, are wanted in the solvent used to thin 
the wax. After the wax is applied, let it stand, then 
bring it to a polish, and the second day after it has 
been polished, rub in a circular manner, the same as 
French polishing. The finished work should have a 
satiny appearance. Lacquer takes the place of paraf- 
fine wax, but it will not withstand the usage. It 
would be better to put a thin coat of lacquer on the 
stain coat, and the wax on it. This, however, is a mat- 
ter to be considered in cost of production. 

Maple is used as imitation cherry, and works up 
beautifully for that. It is also used as imitation mahog- 



HOW BLUISH 

CAST MAY BE 
AVOIDED 



FINISHING 
OF MAPLE 



210 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



NOVELTIES 
ON OAK 



RUSSIAN 
BROWN 



any and in various other ways where the strength of 
the wood recommends it. 

Among the novelties — but always made on oak — 
are driftwood, kaiser gray and silver oak. The latter, 
however, is not a regular gray, but still must be classi- 
fied with the grays owing to its style of finish. On oak 
a gray can be produced in the same manner as on 
maple. The stain, however, must be carefully used. 
Avoid lapping of brush marks, and give it plenty of 
time to take on its shade. The iron salt, with the tannic 
in the wood, produces the color to a certain degree, 
and the stronger the stain, the deeper the color. The 
nigrosine serves to modify the shades and to kill the 
blue cast. The difficulty is the fact that the different 
pieces of wood put in the make-up of the furniture 
contain different percentages of tannin and, in conse- 
quence, one is apt to obtain as many different shades 
as there are pieces of wood. 

If it were possible to make a table top or any sur- 
face out of one board, this difficulty would not arise. 
Knowing how to produce a color should help us to know 
how to make it uniform. When it is found that right 
through the center of the stained piece there is a light 
streak, it can be matched up by taking a solution of 
tannic acid and coating the work and then, when dry, 
applying successive coats of very weak stain until it 
has taken the depth of color to match the balance of 
the piece. 

Another attractive novelty is known as Russian 
brown, a beautiful light brown, which is sometimes 
utilized in the bird's-eye maple, with the eye taking a 
darker tinge. 



IS STARTED 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

BLENDING WOODS A DIFFICULT PROCESS 

THE usual procedure for the blending of golden 
oaks to uniform the colors and shade, due to the 
difference in the texture and kind of the woods, 
is a problem that confronts every manufacturer in blending 

,, 1 • • J 4- BEFORE FINISH 

the wooworking industry. 

The most reliable remedy is the blending of the 
shades before any finish is attempted. This, however, 
is rather difficult, and should be attempted only after 
considerable experience has been had, and the work- 
man becomes familiar with the general scheme of 
equalizing shades. 

In golden oak, where the difference in shade is 
brought out after the stain and filler coats are applied, 
proceed as follows: 

Prepare a weak stain by the use of oil black, oil 
brown and oil yellow, the shades of which are exem- 
plified in the colors. Make three distinct solutions, 
one ounce of color to the quart of turpentine. Of these 
three solutions, use a sufficient amount of each to pro- 
duce a light stain, but of the same tone as that of the 
present appearance of the work ; that is, the appear- 
ance of the stained and filled work. Apply cautiously 
with the use of a camel hair or a fitch brush to the 
light parts, applying repeated coats until it presents 
the same depth of color of the darker. When uncer- 
tain, have a bit of naphtha at hand, and wet the dark 
portions which you are trying to match so that both 
pieces can be judged when wet. 

For cases where the piece of wood runs from a 
dark shade to a very light shade, usually on extremely 
hard pieces of wood, it will be found that the darker 
piece is a softer piece of wood, that it may run up- 
grain, presenting more of the pores. Consequently a 
good deal more of filler has been taken on. Here it is 
best to grade down the shade, from the dark edge to 
the light, reducing the amount of difference gradually. 



212 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



HOW TO MAKE 
A BLENDING 
BRUSH 



REDUCTION OF 
ASPHALTUM 
MAKES GOOD 
BLEND STAIN 



This is usually done by making a brush that will greatly 
assist, as follows: Cut the hairs diagonally, so they 
will be short on one side of the 
brush, and full length on the 
other, then chisel them down 
so that the long hairs will be 
full thickness, and thinned out 
to the short side of the brush. 
You will find that a brush 
of this kind will carry a full 
coat of stain in the long fibers 
with a gradually diminishing 
amount of stain in the thin 
and short fibers, and that it 
will deposit its color material 
in a similar proportion. The 
workman in this way will 
soon learn how to spread the 
color and the brush will save 
a good deal of time, as the one 
dipping will deposit the most 
stain where it is required. You 
can readily see how you will 
take the light piece of wood, 
where it shows the extreme 
difference, and grade it out. It 
might be well to mention here, 
that on the cheaper woods, the 
simple reduction of your as- 
phaltum with turpentine and 
naphtha will make a good 
blending stain ; always bear- 
ing in mind never to have the 
stain strong enough so that a 

complete match could be made with one stroke of the 
brush, as in that case you would be very apt to find 
the blending work going darker than that you are 
trying to match. 

The strength of the stain rather depends upon the 
aptness of the workman. It should be thin enough, 
and a sufl^cient amount of naphtha used to insure quick 
drying so that the repeated coats can be applied with- 




BLENDING BRUSH 



BLENPTNO WOODS A DIFFICULT PROCESS 213 

out the stain acting in the capacity of a varnish re- 
mover. In that case, it would not only lift the stain 
originally applied, but it would also lift the filler, and 
would then cause an uneven deposit with the result 
that the work would have a mottled appearance. 

For the use of a water stain, it will be found that 
this will work very nicely, provided sufficient amount 
of time has been given for the original coats to dry. 
The ordinary workman will belittle the application of 
a water stain on top of a filled piece of wood, and he 
will tell you that it cannot be done. Proceed as fol- ^^r w^«T^n/.AXT'c 

''■ ON WORKMAN S 

lows : APTNESS 

The water stain will not lift or open any of the 
pores. In short grained wood or cross grained wood, 
where the stain takes dark, where a lot of filler is con- 
sumed in the filling, a difficulty can be avoided by first 
shellacing this coarse part with a very thin coat of 
shellac. This will hold back the stain coat and at the 
same time hold back the filler, so that when the piece 
is ultimately finished, a uniformity of shade is the 
result. 

A blending mixture recommended for the use of 
fumed oak and which can be applied with a brush, de- 
scribed in this chapter, is made up as. follows: 

To a pint of alcohol, add a half ounce of Bismark 
brown, spirit soluble. To another pint of alcohol, add 
a half ounce of spirit black, alcohol soluble. When 
the solution of each is complete, pour each solution 
into a pint of white shellac and shake them up thor- water stain 
oughly, enough of the Bismark and enough of the on filled 
black, to obtain the proper tone for blending, until it wood is 
produces the correct shade desired on the fumed oak. practical 
For instance, if sapstreaks are encountered and are 
very light, this blending solution must be proportion- 
ately darker. This same solution is good to be used 
in the covering of the edges where the sanding has cut 
through, as the small amount of shellac will hold the 
color to place and obviate any danger of finger marks 
or prints in the handling of the work afterwards. 

Blending on gray is seldom required, but when re- 
quired, a black shellac solution will do. If, however, 
it is required to be used on gray maple, silver gray, 



214 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



BLENDING 
MIXTURE FOR 
FUMED OAK 



or any of the very light shades, a very small amount of 
black is better. In other words, it would be better to 
make an alcoholic solution of the black or even a water 
solution of nigrosine black and touch up the work, and 
thus avoid the extreme polish that would be obtained 
if a shellac solution were used. 

Not much blending is done on mahogany. The only 
touching up that is required on this finish is usually 
from troubles caused from sanding through the finish. 
In this case the Bismark brown solution will answer 
the purpose. Where the brown mahogany is used, pro- 
duce the brown by the use of Bismark brown and spirit 
black solution and adding a bit of orange until the 
correct shade of brown is obtained. 



CHAPTER XXXVII 

BLEACHING WOOD BEFORE STAINING 

THERE are numerous ways of bleaching dark spots 
and discolorations on wood, but the method 
which will perhaps give the most general satis- 
faction is the oxalic acid bleach. For this bleach one oxalic acid 
half pound of oxalic acid crystals should be dissolved ^^^^ch for 
in a half gallon of hot water. This solution should be ^^^^ ^^^"^^ 
applied to the wood with an old brush, and when dry 
the surface should be gone over with clear, hot water. 
Often repeated applications of the bleach are neces- 
sary. Should this be the case, the wood should be 
washed off with hot water only after the final appli- 
cation of the bleach. When the wood to be bleached 
is greasy or oily, it should first be washed with alcohol 
or benzine, to remove all the grease ; when the wood is 
dry, the bleach should be applied. 

A good stock solution to have in every finishing 
department is a solution known as chlorinated soda. 
It is a simple, but efficient, bleaching agent, and while 
not as rich in chlorine as the chlorinated lime, owing 
to its alkalinity, it has a peculiar effect upon the wood 
which seems to give the small amount of chlorine pres- 
ent a greater opportunity for bleaching. Then, too, if 
first applied followed with peroxide of hydrogen, a 
very effective bleaching process will be obtained. 

Chlorinated soda solution may be made as follows : 
Take 21 ounces of sal soda, and dissolve in 40 ounces 
of hot water. This is Solution "A." Take 10 ounces 
of chlorinated lime and mix it with one and one-half 
pints of water. Stir this mixture thoroughly; then 
allow it to settle, and pour off the clear liquid. To the 
sediment, add another pint and a half of water and 
repeat the operation. After this second solution has 
settled, pour off the clear liquid into the other solution 
and to the sediment add a bit more v^ater. Let this 
filter into the balance of the chlorinated solution. Pour 
the two solutions together; the result will be a clear, 



216 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



REMOVING IRON 
SPOTS 



HYDRO- 
SULPHITE 
BLEACH 



pale greenish liquid, having a faint odor of chlorine, 
and a disagreeable alkaline taste. 

Iron spots may be removed with a solution of 
cyanide of potash, phosphoric acid, and then v^^ashing 
off with clear water. Sulphur fumes will bleach and, 
while difficult to apply, will ofttimes do the trick by 
blowing the fumes against the part to be bleached, 
covering the work with a 2 per cent solution of per- 
manganate of potash, and after it is thoroughly dried, 
applying a 5 per cent solution of hyposulphite of soda. 
This method has been found very satisfactory, espe- 
cially in the softer woods. Care should be taken in all 
cases to remove the chemicals from the wood by re- 
peated applications of fresh water. 

Of late it has been found that a ten per cent solu- 
tion of hydro-sulphite of soda is in many cases a much 
better bleaching agent than those depending upon 
chlorine. 

The wood is given repeated wettings of this solu- 
tion, always allowing it to dry between coats, and when 
finally sanded it needs no other treatment, such as 
sponging with clear water, as the hydro-sulphite has 
no effect upon the finishing material. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 

EBONIZING BIRCH, MAPLE, BEECH, ETC. 

THE WOODS best adapted for ebonizing are apple, 
pear, hazel, maple, beech and birch, in their 
order named. When stained black, they give the 
best imitation of the natural ebony. The process is 
best carried out by immersing or by applying repeated woods that 
coats of the hot color material. Aside from the method imitate 
given elsewhere for ebonizing laboratory tops, the for- ebony well 
mula here given will produce very satisfactory results. 
For staining, boil one pound of logwood chips in two 
quarts of water, or one ounce of logwood extract 
(solid). Brush the hot solution over the work, giving 
it a second coat when dry. Allow this to stand at least 
24 hours, and then coat with a solution of one ounce 
of green copperas (sulphate of iron) to one quart of 
water. Let this dry in a warm, well lighted place. It 
should not be hastened by artificial heat. 

For dipping, the solution may be prepared prac- 
tically as given above, and the woods immersed for at 
least 15 minutes in the first solution, then drained off 
and allowed to dry in a good circulation of air; im- 
merse in the second solution, which may be made up 
of sulphate of copper in place of sulphate of iron, taken 
from this solution, and again dried, and passed through 
an alkaline solution made up by dissolving one-half polishing 
pound of sal soda in a gallon of water. After it passes imitation 
through the third solution, it should be rinsed in clear ^^^^^ 
water. 

For polishing imitation ebony, such as piano keys, 
etc., first coat the work with a very fine glue size, and 
when dry smooth lightly with No. 00 sandpaper. Do 
not cut through the stain coat. Then make a pad, and 
apply French polish; immediately add a few drops of 
oil, and rub with a circular motion. Set it aside for 
one hour, sand again lightly, and repeat the operation. 
To spirit off, great care must be taken or the work 
will be dull instead of bright. Take a clean pad, moisten 



218 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

with alcohol, passing quickly over the surface; then 
drop on a few drops of oil, and rub lightly but quickly 
in circular sweeps until polish is obtained. 
EBONiziNG For large surfaces, similar methods may be em- 

LARGE SURFACE ploycd, but good effects can be produced by oiling the 
work, giving it at least 48 hours to dry ; then two coats 
of shellac, and rub dull with oil. 

For formulas for ebony stains see chapter on Stain 
Formulas. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 

GETTING COLOR RESULTS WITHOUT ANILINES 

THE production of wood stains is not solely de- 
pendent upon the aniline dyes, and to familiarize 
the finisher with the possibility of employing 
chemical and vegetable extracts is the object of the how to obtain 
following- tabulation of the more popular materials certain 
which are in use and which can be employed to great 
advantage. Every one has been tested and is thor- 
oughly reliable. The tables show at a glance how to 
combine chemicals and colors to produce a given stain. 
These are valuable suggestions, but by no means do 
they embrace all of the possibilities, for by the use of 
these as a base, where the reaction is acid in nature, 
acid colors or anilines can be added to the chemicals 
which then act as a mordant for making color per- 
manent and, at the same time, play a part in producing 
the color. 

To make this absolutely clear, such salts or chem- 
icals as potassium chromate, sugar of lead, magnesium 
sulphate, and the various acids will combine without 
injury to color with any of the acid colors in the aniline 
series. Alkalies will destroy the color of many of the 
anilines. We, therefore, do not recommend their use 
in combination. They will work with basic colors, but 
as the basic color is not considered fast to light, with- ^se of alkali 
out a second coat of some mordant, they are seldom ^^^ 
used in connection with the color. Where the effect 
is that of an alkali, under which head comes carbonate 
of potash, aqua ammonia, sal soda, etc., these should 
be used in a coat by themselves, and after it is dry 
the other color put over it. 

It is true that a good many use a small amount of 
potash in getting their mohogany stain. It is a ques- 
tion whether this is absolutely wise. It is done with 
the belief that it helps the color to penetrate the wood ; 
but, in the writer's mind, this potash is more harmful 
than beneficial, and he recommends the use of bichro- 



220 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



DECOCTIONS 
NOT WITHOUT 



mate of potash, which not only gives a color, but helps 
to fasten the stain in the wood. 

A few experiments will exemplify the method and 
results obtained. Oak would not be expected to pro- 
duce the same shade as mahogany, etc. The decorations 
of various color-giving woods are not without their 
uncertainties. This is due to the fact that a vegetable 
is not always uniform in its color-giving proclivities 
and, therefore, after producting a uniform extract, it 
is well to keep a sample of it for future operations. 
This fault is being met by the production of extracts 
UNCERTAINTIES made from these various color-giving plants which are 
as nearly uniform in their color value as possible to 
make. 

The table which follows has been published in many 
periodicals, trade journals, etc. It will serve a pur- 
pose here, as heretofore many formulas also have been 
published, giving the use of these and other vegetable 
coloring materials which today are not considered, nor 
being recognized. The list shows at a glance what is 
to be expected and the possible results that may be 
obtained by the use of the ingredients so treated. 
Decoction of logwood treated with : Gives : 

Strong hydrochloric acid Reddish yellow 

Dilute hydrochloric acid Reddish orange 

Pure and diluted nitric acid Red 

Pure and diluted sulphuric acid Black 

Sulphide of hydrogen Yellow brown 

Ferric nitrate Black 

Potassium chromate Black 

Stannous chloride Violet 

Tartaric acid.. Gray brown 

Sulphate of copper Dark gray 

Tannin Yellow red 

Sal ammoniac - Yellow 

Verdigris Dark brown 

Sugar of lead Gray brown 

Potash Dark red 

Potassium permanganate Light brown 

Potassium iodide Red yellow 

Cupric chloride Reddish violet to dark brown 

Chrome yellow Dark violet 



WHAT VARIOUS 
COMBINATIONS 
PRODUCE 



GETTING COLOR RESULTS IN FINISHING ROOM 221 

Soda Violet 

Sulphate of iron Gray to black 

Alum Dark red brown 

Carbonate of potash Yellow brown 

Magnesium sulphate ..Brown 

Cupric nitrate ...Violet 

Aqua ammonia Dark violet 

Potassium sulphocyanide Red 

Zinc chloride Red brown 

Decoction of fustic extract treated with : Gives : 

Concentrated hydrochloric acid Red 

Dilute hydrochloric acid Yellow brown 

Concentrated nitric acid Reddish yellow 

Dilute nitric acid. Brown 

Concentrated sulphuric acid Dark purnle many yellows 

Dilute sulphuric acid : Brown red produced 

Aqua ammonia - Dark yellow 

Ammonium sulphydrate.. Dark yellow 

Ferric nitrate - ...Dark gray yellow 

Tannin Yellow 

Potash Yellow 

Stannous chloride. Yellow 

Cupric chloride Yellow 

Tartaric acid Yellow 

Alum Yellow 

Pyrogallic acid Yellow 

Cupric sulphate Orange 

Sugar of lead Yellow 

Potassium permanganate. Brownish yellow 

Decoction of Brazil-wood treated with : Gives : 

Strong nitric acid Dark purple 

Dilute nitric acid - ...Pale red 

Strong sulphuric acid ...Red 

Dilute sulphuric acid ...Red 

Strong hydrochloric acid ..Dark red 

Dilute hydrochloric acid Light red 

Aqua ammonia... Dark red 

Ammonium sulphydrate Dark red 

Sulphide of hydrogen. Light red 

Sulphate of iron Dark violet 

Tannin ...No change 

Stannous chloride Light red 



222 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

Cupric chloride Dark red 

Sal ammoniac Reddish yellow 

Sugar of lead Yellowish red 

Potash Dark crimson 

Tartaric acid Reddish yellow 

Decoction of madder treated with Gives : 

Dilute hydrochloric, nitric or sulphuric 

acid Pale yellow 

FURTHER Sue-ar of lead Reddish violet 

INTERESTING Soda Red 

COMBINATIONS Tartaric acid Pale yellow 

Tannin ...Pale yellow 

Potash... Light red 

Sal ammoniac Pale yellow 

Aqua ammonia Reddish yellow 

Alum Faint red 

Stannous chloride Light red 

Decoction of French berries with: Gives:" 

Dilute hydrochloric acid Rose color 

Dilute nitric acid Nq fchange 

Dilute sulphuric acid Yellow 

Potash Yellow 

Stannous chloride Dark yellow 

Tartaric acid Discoloration 

Sugar of lead Dark yellow 

Ammonium sulphydrate Faint yellow 

Potassium bichromate... Brown yellow 

Ferric nitrate... Dark olive green 

Potassium iodide Yellow 

Cupric sulphate Greenish yellow 

Decoction of tumeric treated with : Gives : 

Hydrochloric, nitric or sulphuric acid Yellow 

Sulphate of iron Greenish yellow 

Ferric nitrate... Yellow to dark yellow 

Sugar of lead Yellow 

Alum , Yellow 

Potash Red yellow 

Stannous chloride Yellow 

Sodium Yellow 

The foregoing table is obviously of great importance 
in the finishing* room. 



DRAWERS ADDS 
REFINEMENT 



CHAPTER XL 

THE STAINING OF DRAWERS 

THE difference in the cost of finishing the inside 
of a suite, and the cost of doing it right, is so 
small as to make it scarcely worth while speaking 
about. There is no good reason for staining the inside ^^^''^^^^ 
of furniture darker than the outside, and it costs more 
to do it that way. To make a pleasing contrast when 
the drawers are opened the inside should be stained 
considerably lighter than the outside. Everything else 
being equal, this gives the goods a touch of refinement 
that appeals to the aesthetic taste. I cannot under- 
stand why so many leave the outside of the drawer 
sides unfinished. Of course the slides ought not to be 
varnished, but they should be stained to match the rest 
of the drawer and given a thin coat of shellac. A great 
many factories are doing this now, but sometimes a 
trimmer finds it necessary to plane some off the slide 
to make the drawer work freely and frequently it is 
left that way — part finished and part white. It should 
be somebody's business to see that this patch is re- 
paired ; it should be the duty of the trimmer either to 
repair it himself or see that it is done. 

No matter how the outside of the case is finished, 
whether polished or dull, a gloss finish on the inside is 
an offense against good taste, and tends to cheapen the 
appearance of the whole thing. A dull finish is the is the proper 
proper thing. Some factories dull rub the inside of the thing 
drawers; but this involves a lot of work, and unless 
the oil is thoroughly cleaned out of the corners — which 
is not always the case — the effect is anything but pleas- 
ing. There are on the market flat drying varnishes 
that are not very expensive and which make an excel- 
lent finish for the inside of case goods. Some of these 
are harsh to the touch when dry, and some are soft 
and velvety. Of course the latter is preferable. 

A good finish for the inside of drawers may be made 
as follows : Take 20 gallons of water heated to about 



DULL FINISH 



GOOD FINISH 
FOR PURPOSE 



224 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

175 degrees Fahr., dissolve in this eight pounds of 
borax. Then pour in slowly, stirring constantly, 40 
pounds of orange shellac. Stir until all is dissolved. 
This makes an excellent drawer finish, but where the 
goods are to be water rubbed it should be put on after 
the rubbing has been done, as it will not stand water. 
It should be used merely as a finish coat on top of a 
coat of spirit shellac. Spirit shellac for inside of 
drawers should be made somewhat heavier than is used 
for ordinary work. Three and a half pounds of gum 
to a gallon of solvent will be about right on work that 
has been water stained. This should be nicely sanded 
before the finishing coat is applied. 

When drawer bottoms are faced with mahogany, 
walnut or some other open grained wood, these should 
be filled before they are put in the drawer. When 
staining the drawers, the bottoms may be stained over 
the filler and wiped off with a rag. This will give them 
suflficient color to match the sides. 

There are makers of furniture who think it is of no 
importance how the back of the case is finished. This 
is a mistake as regards the better grade of furniture. 
Everything is of importance. No one pretends that 
the back should compare with the front, but the con- 
trast should be pleasing. The back should be finished 
like the inside — clean and smooth and dull. The shel- 
lac finish above mentioned may be used on the back 
with good results. 

When using this shellac finish do not work it too 
much or it will froth. It requires merely enough brush- 
ing to spread it over the work and will flow out nice 
and smooth of itself. It should be strained through 
book muslin to remove foreign matter that one finds 
in the gum, and to insure a nice smooth surface. 



TIALS IN READY 
MADE STAINS 



CHAPTER XLI 

CHANGING FINISHING STAIN SHADES 

IT SHOULD go without saying that the needs of dif- 
ferent factories are not the same, and that there- 
for the requirements of the finishing room are 
not all the same. The factory that depends upon the "^^^ essen- 
ready made stains has really but two essentials to look 
after. One of these is to see that the stain is always 
uniform and the other to get the best for the least 
possible money. After the shades have been adopted, 
it is up to the foreman to see that the stains are 
uniformly applied, and that he gets the greatest amount 
of work possible per hour. It is like a painter who 
buys ready mixed paints, stirs them up and spreads 
them. He buys them from a color card and suits his 
customer from this color card because in that way all 
he has to do is to open the pails and apply according 
to the directions. But should the customer wish the 
shade changed a little the painter would be up against 
it unless he knew just a little about the mixing of 
paints. And unless he understood something about the 
paint he was using, he might ruin the paint in his 
attempt to alter the color. 

It is not my province to talk against the prepared 
material. This is unquestionably as good as can be 
made, but cases continually arise in which it becomes 
absolutely necessary to change the shade, and it is here 
that it becomes imperative to have such knowledge of 
the material as will enable the foreman to add colors 
to his prepared stains in order to change the shade. 
If, therefore, he has a fair amount of knowledge of 
what is usually employed in producing a desired result, 
he can do this without spoiling or injuring the stain. 

There are all kinds of goods on the market — water 
stains, oil stains, and spirit stains. The maker of each 
lauds the special qualities of his make. Unquestionably 
in the main the claims are correct. It remains for 
the manufacturer to select what is best adapted for 



constant need 
of changing 
shade 



226 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



COLOR VALUE 
HIGHEST IN 
WATER STAINS 



WATER STAINS 
IN ANY SHADE 



his purpose. There are some places where nothing but 
a spirit stain is advisable. There are other places 
where only water stains can produce the desired effect, 
and lastly spirit stains, which serve best for a special 
purpose. 

The color value is highest in water stains, for two 
reasons. A greater variety of colors are made water 
soluble, permitting the production of a greater variety 
of colors or shades, and these are of more delicate hues. 
Again the material upon which we are working, 
namely, wood, in its growing state has a water soluble 
sap, so that when a color is applied it stands to reason 
that if it be mixable in the same fluid as that which 
had been a component part of the wood, it is going to 
unite better than if applied by a vehicle absolutely 
foreign to the nature of the product to which it is 
applied. Second, oil stains, because they save tirpe 
and labor, and will produce a satisfactory color. But 
as yet the colors obtainable are limited. Third, spirit 
stains which are not, however, as a rule permanent 
when exposed to light. It is a peculiar fact that wher- 
ever the highest grade furniture is made you will see 
water stains predominating. There are places of course 
where the oil stains are used in conjunction with water 
stains ; places where it is absolutely necessary not to 
raise the grain. This applies also to spirit stains. 

An intimate knowledge of the stains, and the pro- 
duction thereof cannot be expected to be had by the 
foreman finisher. His business is the using of the 
material and the getting of results. It is also his 
business to get the best results for the least expenditure 
of money and labor. His requirements, therefore, are 
governed by the class of goods, or furniture, turned 
out in his particular factory. But the more he knows 
about stains the more readily he can adjust any diffi- 
culty with which he may be confronted. 

For water stains the following colors will produce 
any of the shades now on the market : Black, brown, 
orange, red and yellow. For the blacks, nigrosine or 
naphthalene black ; for the brown, Bismark, loutre and 
seal ; for the brown mahogany, orange and naphthalene 
black ; for the reds, scarlet, or carmosine. For the 



CHANGING FINISHING STAIN SHADES 227 

orange there are but two shades — orange Y and orange 
G; in the yellow, naphthalene yellow and aurimine. 
With these colors any water stain can be made or 
altered. 

In oil stains the same shades are used but are 
specified "oil soluble." The same applies to spirit 
stains with the exception that the name of the color 
must be used with the words "spirit soluble." It would 
be impossible to give the trade names of these various 

1 T-£ J! A. T-1- ^j ADDING COLOR 

colors, as each firm or manufacturer has his own trade ^^ prepared 
names. stain 

The foreman finisher must remember that in adding 
a color to a prepared stain, as a rule it is necessary to 
increase the liquid or vehicle as well. There are two 
points to be remembered. One is, changing the shade 
without changing the strength or depth of color, and 
the other is increasing the strength. In the former 
the additional color should first be dissolved and then 
be added to the already prepared stain which is to be 
altered. In the latter the strengthening is produced 
by the addition of color without any more vehicle. It 
is impossible to give any specific formula or directions 
that would be applicable to each case. 

In changing the shade of a finish, to begin with, 
the finish must be removed. If it is a wax finish, most 
of the wax can be taken off with turpentine, naphtha, 
or benzole. This is cheaper than the prepared varnish 
removers. The removal of the wax coat will bring 
you down to the shellac; this can be removed with 
alcohol. In case the wood has been filled, and the piece "^ipting" the 
is to be finished in a style which carries with it no 
filler, the pores must be opened and the filler removed 
with a picking brush. It will be found expedient to 
give a good sponging with a strong alkaline solution 
which should be washed off with a clear coat of water, 
when as a rule the filler will lift. The work is then 
thoroughly sanded, and should be by this time back to 
the white state. Care must be taken in doing this work 
when applying this method to veneers. One cannot be 
too painstaking and especially careful with the alkaline 
and water for fear of lifting the veneer. In case you 
suspect the veneer to be very thin, do more work with 



danger of 

"LIFTIN( 
VENEER 



228 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



AVOID ANY 
CUTTING 
THROUGH OF 
VENEER 



TWO LIGHT 
STAINS ARE 
BETTER THAN 
ONE HEAVY 



the varnish remover, and alcohol, and less with the 
alkaline solution. Then in sanding, care must be taken 
not to cut through. Avoid scraping for fear of pro- 
ducing an uneven surface which would later necessi- 
tate a good deal of sanding. When the wood has been 
brought back to the white state, follow the directions 
for finishing according to the directions in any one of 
the finishes that may be selected. The matter is sim- 
plified where the change of shade is for the darker, as 
from a light golden oak, a cathedral to a fumed or an 
Early English. Avoid attempting to produce finishes 
that are not in conformity with the regular styles, such 
as attempting to make a mahogany on oak. Always 
see to it that the change is compatible with convention. 

In changing golden oak to a fumed, little difficulty 
is encountered, as the finish as a rule does not pene- 
trate and the removal of the filler is not so exacting. 
But avoid a job of changing a genuine fumed to a light 
golden oak, or in fact any kind of a color that is lighter 
than the original fumed oak. It is well to ascertain 
whether the fumed is a genuine fumed piece or whether 
it is stained fumed oak. 

In mahoganies, some results may be obtained by 
applying bleaching methods where the shade is to be 
made lighter. But, here again, you are apt to encoun- 
ter difficulty when the veneer portion of the furniture 
is to be treated. 

It is well to remember that in changing finishes, 
and especially where the change is to match some other 
piece, it is safer to apply a weaker stain, and repeat 
the operation, than to apply a strong stain which may 
prove too dark. It would be better to make tests on 
pieces of wood before attempting it on the original 
work. Always remember, that if the finish after the 
filler and the first coat of shellac has been applied, 
should be too light, considerable doctoring can be done 
by incorporating a bit of color in the second coat of 
shellac. 



LIGHT OIL 



CHAPTER XLII 

COAL TAR PRODUCTS IN FINISHING ROOM 

FROM coal tar many products are extracted or pro- 
duced, either directly or indirectly, which prove 
to be of considerable interest to staining artisans. 
We are indebted to the so-called light oil fraction of 
the tar for the large majority of these products ; some puQpucEs coal 
few, however, are obtained from the other fractions, tar products 

The writer will confine his efforts to giving you in 
detail only the characteristics, uses, etc., of those prod- 
ucts of special interest to the finisher, all of which 
incidentally are taken from the light oil fraction. 

We will mention, however, in passing: 

Crude and Refined Cresylic and Carbolic Acids, 
extracted from the carbolic acid or middle oil fraction, 
which are occasionally used on account of their ex- 
ceptional solvent and penetrating actions. These 
actions are stronger and more pronounced than the 
corresponding actions of some of the lighter distillates 
of a neutral nature. They cannot be used in all cases, 
inasmuch as they often "burn" or otherwise affect 
some delicate shades. 

Naphthalene and Phenol (Refined Crystal 
Carbolic Acid) , obtained from the same fraction, offer 
themselves as bases for some coal tar colors. 

Anthracene, from the anthracene fraction, is like- some of the 
wise used in the same manner. coal tar 

Heavy Tar Oils and Pitches, the former a widely products 
fractioned crude, is often used as a paint without 
alteration ; while the latter, which are residues, are 
used as bases for crude paints or various natures. 

After the crude coal tar has been fractioned into 
light oil, middle oil, heavy oil, and pitch, the light oil 
fraction is further distilled by the general methods of 
fractioning with a column still heated by steam. The 
temperature gradually rises until a fraction of liquid 
comes off in a steady stream at approximately 82'^ 
centigrade. This is crude benzol and is run into a 



230 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



HOW VARIOUS 
PRODUCTS ARE 
OBTAINED 



tank for further refining. The still temperature rises 
steadily and at about 110'' C. a crude is collected that 
is called toluol or methyl-benzol. Crudes continue to 
come off from there to about 145". These are stored 
to refine xylol or dimethyl-benzol, then to 160"" these 
give us solvent naphtha, and so on up to 200°, v^^here 
heavy naphtha comes off. After these products, fol- 
low the creosotes which cannot be graded as to boiling 
point, nor be classed as benzols or naphthas. 

Now we shall go back to our crude benzol. This 
as you see is crude and possesses considerable odor. 
This is washed with acids and alkalies until all the 
impurities are out and then it is redistilled in a more 
highly developed type of still and we get the water- 
white benzol as a result. This is drummed off as it 
comes out of the condenser and an individual analysis 
shows whether it is benzol pure, lOO^r, 90%, or 
50' i. This is done by distilling it in a small flask and 
condenser, and the per cent that has already distilled 
over at 100" C. is taken as the basis of grade. For 
instance, a drum having 100 /o volatile at 100° is called 
100% benzol; 90% benzol having evolved at 100° is 
known as 90%>, and so on down. A drum, of which the 
sample will show the entire amount volatile within two 
degrees of 80^, is listed as pure. 

The crude toluol is refined in the same manner, but 
is divided only into pure (that which all distills in 2° 
of its true boiling point 110), and commercial (90% 
of which is volatilized at 120^ C). 

Pure xylol is refined to a fraction, all of which 
boils between 135° C. and 140° C. When a fraction is 
obtained which tests 90'' distilling at 160°, this form 
is termed solvent naphtha. 

Heavy naphtha is not further refined, and with 
that is offered unrefined benzol and toluol, which are 
offered to the consumer as straw color. Bear in mind 
that they are the same as the water whites, but are 
not given a treatment to remove the impurities which 
impart a color and odor. There is also a straw color, 
or unwashed solvent naphtha, that is offered under 
various trade names, usually determined by the com- 
pany offering them, "Barrettol," etc. 



COAL TAR PRODUCTS IN FINISHING ROOM 231 

This completes the list of benzols that are refined 
in this country, and as to which is the most suitable 
to the artisan, it is so largely a matter of personal 
opinion, that it will probably be best to sum up all 
the possibilities in each. 

All of these benzols can be used interchangeably, 
that is to say, that one will do the work of the other, 
because they all have approximately the same diluting, 
thinning or solvent power. They are in respect to each 
other the same hydrocarbons, but having different 
boiling points, they have correspondingly different 
rates of evaporation. With this point in mind, let us 
consider each separate grade. 

Pure Benzol — Low boiling point and very quick 
in evaporating. Should be used as a solvent only where 
a strong solvent and quick evaporation is desired. 
This material is particularly designed for the rubber 
trade and for manufacturing other chemicals, such as 
aniline, myrrhbane, synthetic phenol, etc. 

100% Benzol — Used generally as a solvent where 
people want to volatilize at the temperature of steam, 
i. e., 100° C. 

90% Benzol — This is the best known grade, has a 
fairly fast evaporation, and for solvent power and thin- 
ning properties may be used as the typical benzol. 

50% Benzol — Is the same as the preceding, but 
merely a little slower in evaporation time. 

Toluol Pure — Designed chiefiy for manufacturing 
purposes, such as benzoic acid, etc. 

Toluol Commercial — Water-white as all before, 
but the boiling point has increased so as to about treble 
the evaporating time of this grade as compared with 
the first distillates. In fact, this is slow enough to 
have some brushing quality, and is for that reason 
preferred for certain classes of work. The solvent 
power is relatively the same. 

Pure Xylol — Designed for drug and scientific pur- 
poses. 

Solvent Naphtha — A water-white product, quite 
slow in evaporation ; in fact, more nearly approaching 
turpentine with a corresponding increase in brushing 
quality than all others gone before, and here the boiling 



BENZOLS 
REFINED IN 
THIS COUNTRY 



232 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



PROPERTIES OF 

VARIOUS 

BENZOLS 



point has increased sufficiently to raise the flash point 
to a point of safety. The flash points of the others 
are very low. 

Straw Colors — The properties of each of these 
may be described by referring them to each correspond- 
ing water-white: Straw color benzol corresponds to 
90% benzol; straw color toluol corresponds to com- 
mercial toluol; crude solvent (Barrettol) corresponds 
to solvent naphtha. It should be remembered that they 
will do the same work, but that their color and odor 
make them less desirable at times. 

Heavy Naphtha — The heaviest one of the coal tar 
naphthas possesses a high flash and a dark color. It 
has still the same strong solvent power as the pre- 
ceding ones, and the same characteristic odor. 

From this discussion it will be seen that several of 
the products bear very general likeness to each other 
and that their behavior toward other materials is gen- 
erally the same, consequently the most conspicuous 
variation is the one we are inclined to group them by, 
and that property is the one that the artisan must 
look to also as his method of determining which he 
is to use. I refer to boiling point or evaporating time. 
We can eliminate certain grades immediately, and by 
choosing the following grades we will include one of 
each type that will determine the benzols suitable to 
the artisan : 



BENZOLS BEST 
SUITED TO 
ARTISAN 



T-. T> ^x ^ [90 '/c benzol. 

Fast Benzols o4- i u i 

I Straw color benzol. 

T./r T3^^T,,^T r. \ Commercial toluol. 

Medium Benzols -I -,. , ^ , ^ 

[ Straw color toluol. 

Solvent naphtha. 

Slow Benzols Heavy naphtha. 

Crude solvent (Barrettol) 



It will be seen that by ignoring the pure grades, 
it is possible to eliminate the higher priced articles. 
While these are quite worth the difference in cost, as 
a rule the ones mentioned are sufficiently worthy for 



COAL TAR PRODUCTS IN FINISHING ROOM 233 

the purposes they are used for to be called suitable. 

As to the uses the material may be put to, it is 
hard to define any limits, because some one individual 
may prefer it for purposes where other solvents would 
do just as well. Sometimes where it would be by far 
the best, the other solvents still have the precedence; 
but as a general thing, the uses may be grouped under 
the specialties which are best enumerated as follows : 

Paint and varnish removers consist largely of ben- 
zol, and the consumption of such compounds is very 
large in this country and the demand is divided between 
alcohol and benzol. We refer now to the neutral and 
patented removers which are on the market. A great 
many individuals and manufacturers use the acid or 
carbolic varieties, thus avoiding certain of the patents, 
but at the same time a great deal of benzol goes for 
this sort of a use. Also a fast benzol is used by a great 
many, and recommended by not a few chemists and 
manufacturers for cleaning up the surface after the 
remover has been allowed to do its work and been 
wiped off. This is particularly advantageous when a 
remover carrying a paraffine blanket has been used, 
as the benzol penetrates the pores of the wood and 
tend to remove the wax that has remained in the fiber, 
which is desirable when the surface is to be revar- 
nished. 

Benzol as a thinning agent in bronzing liquids has 
considerable vogue. The varnish varieties of bronze 
and aluminum paints are frequently thinned with the 
benzol, because it is possible to get some brushing 
quality and at the same time use a liquid which con- 
tains absolutely no free impurities which would tend 
to discolor the powder. Also the gravities, being con- 
siderably heavier than the petroleum naphthas, sup- 
port the heavy pigments so much better that the 
liability of caking is decreased. The cotton or banana 
liquid vehicles carry very often considerable benzol, 
because of its cheapness and the fact that the coal tar 
naphtha imparts a certain silkiness to a cotton film. 
When gun-cotton or scrap celluloid is dissolved in amyl- 
acetate, alcohol, or similar material, it can be diluted 
with the benzol to a point where the cotton does not 



VARIOUS USES 
OF BENZOLS 



BENZOL AS A 
DILUENT 



234 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



OIL SOLUBLE 
STAIN OUTLET 
FOR BENZOL 



HOW BENZOL 
FIGURES IN 
VARNISH 



coagulate^ thus being considerably cheaper and at the 
same time reducing the liability of carrying moisture 
into the mixture as is possible with some other diluents, 
which have an aflfinity for water. 

The oil soluble stain is a very considerable outlet 
for benzol, and really, when thought over, is a very 
natural one, since the oil soluble stains are made from 
aniline, which is in turn made from benzol; and it is 
generally agreed that it is quite natural to dissolve 
one substance in a material of a similar nature. In 
this way the permeability of the anilines is increased 
and the solution can be made much more readily. A 
large point in the favor of coal tar naphtha is of course 
its penetration. In fact, it is quite remarkable that 
a spirit stain, having been treated to make it soluble in 
oil, may be put into benzol quite to the limit of solvent 
power, and yet the stain when applied will penetrate a 
very closely grained wood to a considerable depth ; in 
fact, to a much greater depth than if the material were 
dissolved in alcohol originally. 

Some claim that anilines thinned with benzol take 
on a certain tone or softness, but since there is no 
chemical reason for this, it is believed it is largely a 
matter of personal opinion. Since we know that many 
people using benzol become quite attached to it and 
form very decided prejudices in its favor, we can 
readily understand this attitude. Of course, there is 
also the oil stain in which pigment colors are used, 
where benzol on account of its gravity, penetration, 
and brushing qualities is to be desired, as well as in 
the real dyes. 

Varnishes and the demand that they make upon the 
benzol market in a way is hard to describe, since a 
great deal of benzol may go into varnishes in the form 
of turpentine substitutes. That is, people who make 
turpentine substitutes for their own use may take a 
percentage of turpentine for odor and brushing quality, 
and a per cent of benzol for solvent power, penetra- 
tion, and the like, and the rest of benzine for cheap- 
ness. A great deal of varnish is probably thinned with 
a material like this, but it does not warrant calling 
benzol a thinner for varnishes in the sense that you 



COAL TAR PRODUCTS IN FINISHING ROOM 235 

would turpentine or benzine. We refer to the oleo- 
resinous varnishes. 

Spirit varnishes of course carry a great deal of 
benzol, because the solvent power of benzol for damar 
and rosin is Very marked. Manila is cut very readily 
by the use of alcohol and benzol, as are a good many 
of the hard copals. This feature of benzol is a remark- 
able one and as yet not very clearly explained. In 
fact, a separate group of solvents might be called the 
conjunctive solvents; benzol with alcohol, with acetone, 
with amyl-acetate, and various other solvents would 
seem to form a mixture with a solvent power greater 
than the individual powers of any of its constituent 
parts. 

In the enamels and japans the use of a small amount 
of one of the refined benzols is recommended by some 
authorities ; "the complete evaporation" quality of the 
thinner in question being the point that prompts such 
a recommendation. Considering in such a case that 
when the enamel or japan has been properly thinned 
and applied in a satisfactory manner the benzol has 
completed its work; the fact that upon drying (fast or 
slow), this thinner leaves behind no oily or gummy 
residue to mar the resultant finish, should appeal as 
an advantage. This outlet for coal tar thinners has 
never proven to be a large one. The characteristic 
odor of the distillates, which to some people appears 
unpleasant, has been one drawback. This applies espe- 
cially in cases where oven drying, or hot room drying, 
is resorted to. 



FURTHER USES 
OF BENZOL 



NEEDS PROPER 
SURFACE 



CHAPTER XLIII 

ENAMELING FURNITURE 

ENAMELING furniture, whether upon new or old 
work, must have the surface in proper condition, 
well filled, smooth, and shellaced; then sanded 
and dusted. ^^^^^^ ^^^^ 

The finest finish may be obtained in the following 
manner: When surface is in proper condition, apply 
two coats of enamel priming white, the second coat 
being slightly tinted with the finishing color, if the 
finishing coats are not white. Allow 24 hours for 
each coat to dry and then sand lightly with 00 sand- 
paper. Next apply a coat of enamel of the color de- 
sired for the finished work. Flow on thin with a chis- 
eled varnish brush. Avoid "lapping" by not brush- 
ing over the enamel after it has begun to set. Should 
enamel not work freely, add a very little turpentine. 
Allow 36 hours for enamel to harden and then rub 
with curled hair or with pumice stone and water. 
Apply the next and final coat in the same manner. 
If a regular enamel gloss finish is desired, this is all 
that is necessary. 

A rubbed finish may be imparted by rubbing smooth 
with powdered pumice stone and rubbing oil, or water. 
Use a piece of rubbing felt kept well saturated with 
the oil or water and dip in pumice stone, rubbing sur- "lapping" to 
face smooth and removing brush marks. Allow enamel 
to stand three to four days before rubbing. 

A polished finish may be obtained by polishing with 
powdered rotten stone and polishing oil, or water. Use 
soft cloth or cotton waste, kept well saturated with the 
oil or water and dip in rotten stone, rubbing surface 
until a high lustre appears. Allow the rubbed finish to 
stand at least 24 hours before polishing. 

An average finish may be obtained by applying two 
coats of primer and one coat of enamel, as described, 
the last coat being left in the enamel gloss. 

An inexpensive finish may be had by applying one 



BE AVOIDED 



238 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



INEXPENSIVE 
FINISH 



PARCHMENT 
FINISH 



coat of enamel by flowing on evenly with a chiseled 
varnish brush. Avoid lapping by not brushing over 
enamel after it has begun to set. Should the enamel 
not work freely, add a very little pure turpentine, but 
not enough to dim the lustre. This finish will not do 
if the enamel is lighter in color than the old finish ; in 
that event, follow directions for an average finish. 

Parchment is an innovation among enamel finishes. 
The eflfect produced is somewhat similar to the stip- 
pled wall effects produced by an interior decorator, 
and some very novel and beautiful finishes have been 
produced by the process. The usual method followed 
is to give the work two coats of flat undercoat, followed 
by a coat, or sometimes two coats, of the desired shade 
of enamel. 

A paste is now prepared of a color which will har- 
monize well with the enamel. This paste is formed of 
pigment colors ground in oil, thinned with turpentine 
to a thin paint, and a little japan added to serve as a 
binder. A cloth, free from lint, is now crumpled in 
the hand, and dipped into a little of the thin paint 
which has been spread on a piece of glass. 

The cloth is now tamped lightly on the enamel sur- 
face, so as to leave an impression. The tamping is 
usually done with a twisting effect also, which serves 
to give a better appearance. 

The finish, for medium grade work, is complete 
with the above process. High class work requires a 
coat of pale rubbing varnish over the enamel and stip- 
pled parts, this coat to be rubbed down to a satin finish. 



CHAPTER XLIV 

LACQUER ENAMELS 

FOR lacquer enamel finishes the wood should be 
prepared by applying one to two coats of a 
combination filler and surfacer, the number of 
coats depending upon the nature of the wood. For this ^^^ lacquer 

. A f • j> 1 1 SURFACER 

work a lacquer pigmented surfacer is preferable to an 
oil surfacer for the following reasons : It has greater 
adhesion ; it presents a harder surface ; it can be ap- 
plied and dried in three to four hours ready for an 
enamel coat as against 20 to 30 hours for an oil sur- 
facer; being closely allied to lacquer, enamels require 
less enamel coats and enamel adheres better to it; no 
sealer is necessary over lacquer surfacer as in the case 
of an oil surfacer to serve as protection against the 
action of enamel, the enamel tending to blister the oil 
surfacer. 

Oil surfacers are very soft and chalk readily. In 
deep grooves they bridge when enamel is applied due 
to contraction of the enamel film and lack of adhesion 
of the surfacer. Oil surfacers can be used to advan- 
tage in end wood and pitted surfacers after which the 
lacquer surfacer should be applied. 

For spraying, lacquer surfacers should be thinned 
30 per cent using 50 pounds pressure. 

Oil surfacer, thinned 50 to 50 with 30 pounds pres- 
sure, for deep corners, require larger quantities of 
thinner. After sanding for leveling and smoothing, 
enamel is applied. Enamel should be thinned 20 to 30 
per cent using 50 pounds pressure. 

Over lacquer surfacer only one or two coats of ^^^^ enamel 
enamel are necessary, whereas two to three coats of necessary 
enamel are necessary over oil surfacer on account of 
the color and softness of the latter. The first coat of 
enamel will attack the oil surfacer forming blisters 



LACQUERING 
ON METAL 



240 PROBLEMS OF THE FIN ISHING ROOM 

which have to be sanded down. The second and third 
coats of enamel will insure a hard surface in case the 
oil surfacer is used. For the lacquer surface only a 
color coat is necessary. In case of flat enamels buffing 
is necessary for gloss if gloss is desired. Lustrous 
enamels can be used as a final coat to eliminate buffing. 
Time of drying between coats holds true with enamels 
the same as with lacquers — two to three hours. The 
spray should be regulated and operated in the same 
manner. 

For metal parts an oil surfacer is desirable for fill- 
ing the pores and leveling off. Lacquer surfacer is too 
hard and brittle for this purpose, but it can be used 
over the oil surfacer as a hardening coat and a pre- 
paratory coat for the enamel. Otherwise a sealer is 
necessary in some cases between the surfacer and the 
enamel coat to prevent the enamel attacking the sur- 
facer. 

Very often an intermediate thin coat of shellac is 
necessary for adhesion of enamel. Other details for 
metal finish are the same as for wood. 



CHAPTER XLV 

SPIRIT STAINS IN FINISHING 

THE very title of these stains describes them. 
Generally they are a solution of spirit soluble 
anilines which are classified as basic colors and 
which are generally not fast to light. The durability 
of their color necessitates stains of this nature to be 
well protected with coats of shellac, keeping out all of 
the air. When subjected to sunlight, they will fade, no 
matter how much finishing has been done over them. 
There are places where their use is permitted, and 
there are occasions where the employment of spirit 
solutions is the only method thus far obtained for pro- 
ducing the required effects and results. 

Spirit stains are made by dissolving such colors or 
combinations as will produce the desired shade. Little 
filling is done where they are employed. Wood alcohol 
is the more common solvent, with denatured alcohol 
and grain alcohol sometimes used. Heat is never em- 
ployed. Loading of the liquid will cause bronzing, 
which is the congealing and drying of the aniline on 
the surface, because it cannot follow the alcohol vehicle 
in its penetration, and because the evaporation exceeds 
the speed of penetration thus leaving it in a thin film 
on the surface to which it has been applied. Covering 
spirit stains with shellacs must be done quickly and 
without restroking the surface. The same applies to 
the application of the stain itself. 

Spirit stains have one advantage, which is that they 
do not raise the grain, but produce quick and desirable 
results where thev are not exposed to air and light, 
such as the interior of drawers and case work. 



PROCESS TO 
BE FOLLOWED 



COOL PLACE 



CHAPTER XLVI 

THE CARE OF STAIN MATERIAL 

A GOOD rule, for any finishing department, is to 
insist on finishing material being kept in sealed 
packages^ Liquids must always be well corked ; 
kept in a moderately cool place. Liquid solvents will ^^^^ liquid 
evaporate and the lighter portions which evaporate ^^^J^J^ 
are many times the stronger factor in solvent qualities 
and thus the remaining liquids are not as efiicient as 
the original. 

In mixed dry stains, where it is possible for the 
mixture to be made up of coarser and finer powders, 
there is danger from the coarser powders finding their 
way to the top of the package through the continual 
vibration of the factory. In that case the removal of 
the upper portions would not be an exact representa- 
tion of the general contents of the package. Such stain 
material should be shaken thoroughly and care should 
be taken that the mixture is complete before employing 
any part thereof. 

In chemicals, especially those in crystalline form, 
some may be hydroscopic, others may be deliquescent, 
by which is meant, that one absorbs moisture from the 
air, and the other gives off moisture, so that where 
small quantities are employed the actual amount of 
the chemical might vary considerably had they not been 
properly cared for. Uniformity of product is an essen- 
tial. Upon the stain product depends the entire suc- 
cess of the finish. It should always be remembered that 
it is wise to keep in an air-tight package a sample of 
the original stain, especially with the anilines, so that 
as each new batch is obtained it may be compared with 
the original. A simple matter for example: 

Weigh out five grains, dissolve it in a pint of water. 
Then weigh out five grains of the original, dissolve it 
likewise. Pour the contents in separate cylinder 
glasses of like diameter, compare the color. For a 
check on this comparison, take pieces of white blotting 



KEEP SAMPLE 
OF ORIGINAL 
STAIN 



244 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



MANY STAINS 
VARY IN 
COLOR VALUE 



USE OF SUL- 
PHATE OF IRON 
IMPORTANT 



paper and immerse them in the solution. They must 
compare both when wet and when dry. 

Where vegetable extracts and dyestuffs are em- 
ployed, it is more essential to keep a sample of the 
original solution. These products often vary in their 
color value, and unless they are matched with the 
original by either employing more or less in the making 
of the second solution, and thus preparing an exact 
duplicate, the stain so produced is apt to fall off in 
shade. 

CAUTION 

WHEN USING IRON IN ITS VARIOUS FORMS IN THE PRO- 
DUCTION OF STAIN 

The most common form of iron found in the market 
is sulphate of iron, commonly known as copperas. 
(So named because it has a greenish color.) This, 
however, is one of the most unstaple forms to use. 
When employed, the following precaution should be 
taken. When employing sulphate of iron in the crystal- 
line form, see to it that only the fresh crystals are 
used. This will be of a glossy appearance. When 
exposed to the air, the water of crystallization evapor- 
ates, leaving a white powder on the exterior of crystal. 
This represents much more iron than the same weight 
of crystal and thus the shade of the stain will be greatly 
changed. It will be darker, which may not be noticed 
at first, but if it is allowed to continue by the use of the 
same stain made up repeatedly, the drying out process 
at the same time increases the amount of iron in each 
batch, finally these will be so much different in the 
color produced, that one would not imagine them to be 
of one and the same formula. 

It is to be recommended in establishing new for- 
mulas, to use the dried sulphate of iron. This is a 
staple compound and none of the foregoing difficulties 
will be encountered. 

In stains that are made up for immediate use, the 
standardized solutions of iron are recommended. Solu- 
tion chloride of iron U. S. P. or solution sulphate of 
iron U. S. P. are undoubtedly the most readily obtained. 
A very small quantity will produce immediate effect on 
practically all woods, especially those rich in tannin. 



CHAPTER XLVII 

FINISHING GUM AND ITS USES 

THE uses that gum wood are put to today are quite 
diversified. It is put out as Circassian, and as 
mahogany, but now there is a strong disposition 
to give it a shade and put it out under a style of its walnut 
own. At the same time it makes up beautifully when crystals 
stained to produce the same as that of the adopted employed 
color for American walnut. The stain material em- 
ployed is nothing more than walnut crystals, and 
imported dye, universally known to the trade, and a 
very weak solution at that. The dye is prepared by 
dissolving any given quantity in boiling hot water, 
allowing it to cool and then passing it through a filter. 
This concentrated solution is then diluted until it pro- 
duces the desired shade. One coat of stain is all that is 
applied. From this step on the procedure is the same 
as in any finishing problem. 

Whether it is gum wood or Circassian that is to be 
finished as Circassian walnut, the question of the last 
coat always spells lacquer. Circassian, as we know, 
is finished in natural. Gum is only stained to bring 
it to its natural Circassian color. Some call it over- 
coming the red in the gum. The final achievement 
must be an exact reproduction of the genuine article. 
What can be produced by the use of wax is known to prq^uces bet- 
every manufacturer. The use of lacquer remains an ^^j^ than nat- 
unsettled opinion. Its use is not new, having first been ural finish 
employed on a finish put out on gum as satin walnut 
and in connection with verda green. 

Gum wood, with a very sm^all amount of stain, will 
make a much more pleasing appearance than if finished 
natural. Without the stain, it takes on various tones 
of cold gray which is difficult to describe, but which it 
is certain does not have the pleasing effect which comes 
with warm tones which are more desirable and will 
wear better. Therefore, the application of this brown 
overcomes this possible difficulty, and as the wood ages 



246 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



ONE COAT 
STAIN FOR 
VAN DYKE 



it tends to mellow down the cold effect that the gum 
wood is prone to assume. This does not necessarily 
cover the process of staining gum wood when it is used 
as a substitute for American walnut. In other words, 
the gum wood used in this sphere is stained to match 
the prevailing style of American walnut, and finished 
in the same manner. The main point is transparency, 
such as one wants on Circassian finishes. By Circassian 
finishes, is meant, of course, all the kindred kinds. 

When finished as Van Dyke, and the formula pre- 
pared and ready for the staining, a one coat stain is 
preferable. Whether it be a water stain, spirit stain, 
or oil stain, it is not to be filled. White shellac is used 
rather thin, sanded lightly, and the varnish coats. 
Any style of final finish may be employed. 

When finished as Van Dyke, and the formula pub- 
lished employed, the directions there given will bring 
the proper results. This is true when finished as moss 
brown, verda green or any of the other finishes that 
may be applied to gum. 



CHAPTER XLVIII 

SYSTEM IN MATCHING STAIN COLORS 

WE WILL admit that a very important part of 
the finisher's daily routine is the matching of 
colors sent to him representing the style and 
shade of finish for a special order. Undoubtedly, the 

1 ji J • ^^^ jX 11 i.- -P 4-1, IMPORTANCE OF 

house that is selling the goods has a portion ot the j^^^ching 
order placed with some other factory — yes, possibly ^^q^or 
two or three. It is up to each finisher making a portion 
of the order to make as close a match and duplication 
of the sample sent him as possible. A great amount 
of time is thus taken in experimental work. The big 
mistake, however, is that these matchings are hurriedly 
made and the different treatments are not permitted to 
ripen. Thus the sample is not correctly matched be- 
cause after it has stood for a week the color may 
change considerably. Therefore, if the operation is 
hurriedly done, although the match at the time may be 
perfect, the regular work that comes through may be 
several shades off. 

In my experiments I have found that time is gained 
by giving the stain coat the same amount of time as it 
would receive in the regular line of work. The pro- 
cedure is about as follows: 

Having had the advantage of matching hundreds 
of boards, it follows one gets an idea of how the color 
was made. Every time a new sample comes in, it is procedure in 
easy to turn back and, by comparison, pick out the matching 
sample that comes nearest to matching, and then 
change the formula enough to produce a similar shade 
to the new board just received. But in a factory the 
proposition may be somewhat different. The foreman 
may have been working on a limited line of colors. 
Again he will not have on hand a large variety of 
shades to make up his matching. But if he has been 
following these articles, he undoubtedly is familiar 
with the few absolutely requisite color products, and 
the chemicals, and the anilines, and has them on hand. 
I have stated that time is saved by giving the stain 



248 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



WORK FROM 
DARK TO LIGHT 



TESTING 
SAMPLES 



coat the regular amount of time to dry and to set. This 
applies to either water, spirit or oil stains. But if each 
matching was to be given this amount of time the 
customer would be calling for the goods long before 
the shade was matched by the finisher. Th^efore, I 
recommend that first the finisher make a strong solu- 
tion which he knows is too dark, and then make 10 
more dilutions, until he has one which he knows is 
right. You will see at once that there will be 10 inter- 
mediate points. Now then, when these 10 little boards 
dry out it is an easy matter to select the one which 
matches closest. 

Where a two-stain proposition is to be handled, the 
same method is recommended, for the second coat is 
prepared in the same way and applied in the same 
routine and permitted to dry. But it will be seen that 
the 10 original pieces can be made into a hundred 
matchings, as each one of the 10 can be coated with 
the 10 of the second stain. When you first look at a 
proposition of this kind it may stagger you, and you 
will say to yourself, "Why, this man wants me to make 
100 test samples." Not so at all. You lay the first 10 
little pieces, say a board four inches wide and 12 inches 
long. Lay the 10 of them alongside, then take your 10 
dilutions of the second coat and brush over the entire 
10. With a lead pencil mark each board "top." Then, 
from the top down, you cross the ten boards 10 times 
with each one representing first solution, then with the 
first dilution, and so on until you have 10 boards, the 
first coat of which has been crossed 10 times, with the 
result that you have 100 squares made out of two 
stains, showing 100 different shades. The chances are 
very good that you will have some diflficulty in selecting 
from a few the one that suits you best. 

But don't stop here. Finish up the entire 10 in the 
same manner as the board sent in was finished. You 
know how to test this sample as to its finish, whether 
it is wax, varnish or just shellac. Find this out and 
then proceed to finish the board in the same manner. 
It might be well for me to say, however, that if the 
wood was filled, you have got to put on the filler and 
establish in your own mind the depth of color of this 



SYSTEM IN MATCHING STAIN COLORS 249 

material. Fillers don't vary so very much and if they 
do, make up your mind that there are only three or four 
pigments usually employed in their makeup. 

Of course, the kind of wood employed makes a good 
deal of difference. You are supposed to have selected 
for your samples the same kind of wood, as near the 
grain as possible, and, of course, you found out whether 
it was red or white oak. In short, you have gone 
through all these preliminaries and have filled the wood 
and are now prepared to put on the final finish. Go ^'^^ ^^ "^^^^ 
right along, put on the shellac, give it the regular time, ^ifferenceT ^ 
then varnish, let it dry and finish to match the sample. 
Now it is up to the final matching. Carefully examine 
the little places. You have numbered the boards, you 
have them all marked "top." Put them in the same 
position and select the one which matches to your own 
satisfaction. Then you back up and for argument's 
sake, find that it is number six on the fifth board. The 
first board represented your first solution. You may 
have added 5 or 10 per cent of water for each dilu- 
tion. Then multiply the strength of your stain by the 
number of the board, and it must prove up to strength 
of the original board. If you know the amount of stain 
powder used in the first solution, you will see how 
readily you can figure out the strength of your fifth 
board. This covers the first coat. 

But you have the sixth in the second coat which 
works out the same way. Now suppose you don't do it 
on the percentage basis at all and we will say you took 
a quart of water and added to it an ounce of stain working on 
powder. You found this was much too light. I would percentage 

BASIS 

here suggest, then, that you take a half pint of water 
and to it add first a quarter ounce of powder, which is 
the same strength as an ounce would be to a quart. 
Then gradually add 30 grains of powder until you 
have a shade that you know is darker than it really 
ought to be. I say 30 grains because 30 grains is half 
of a dram, and it keeps your figures more in direct 
relation to the weights you are employing. Conse- 
quently, when you come to figure it will enable you to 
avoid the many little pitfalls which are due to errors 
in calculation, especially when you are increasing your 



250 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



PROCEDURE 
CONTINUED 



ASCERTAINING 

CORRECT 

LENGTH 



formula in weights and measures. Then again you 
must remember that the amount of water is going to 
increase with each dilution. You take eight ounces of 
water to begin with and suppose that each dilution is 
made by the use of one more additional ounce of water. 
When you get through you will have 17 ounces of water 
in the 10 dilutions. The 17 ounces of water will repre- 
sent the same amount of powder that was contained in 
the original eight. As a rule, I have found that you 
usually find by this method the fourth, fifth and sixth 
dilutions as bringing out the shades. Of course, you 
thoroughly understand that your judgment of the col- 
ors selected has been correct, but if it was the fifth 
dilution and you have used the quarter of an ounce, 
then you have a quarter of an ounce of stain powder 
in 13 ounces of water, from which it is easily cal- 
culated how many grains would be to the gallon, for 
you would divide the number of grains by 13 which 
gives you the number of grains in each ounce. Then 
you would multiply by the number of ounces con- 
tained in a gallon and thus arrive at the amount of 
stain powder to be employed to each gallon of water. 
But suppose that the powder or color material does 
not give you the desired shade, and it thus becomes 
necessary to try out several colors in order to produce 
the shade. Proceed in the same manner and if you 
wish to assure yourself that you have selected colors 
that will make the shade, take a graduate, add a little 
of the one in which you have the most confidence, and 
then shade it up by the addition of the other two or 
three as the case may be, until this preliminary test 
convinces you that you have the correct components. 
Then start out to ascertain the correct strength. Do it 
in the same manner. Take the 10 boards, coat each one 
with the first solution, cross it with the second solu- 
tion. Go back to the first way with the third solution 
and so on unil all the solutions have been applied. 
Somewhere in the square you will have your match. 
Then you figure back for the amount of powder that 
you require. Now, if you wish to prove this, weigh out 
the amount of powder shown you by the key, and dis- 
solve it in the amount of water, but be sure not to fall 



SOLUTION 



SYSTEM IN MATCHING STAIN COLORS 251 

into this pitfall. The most natural thing to do is to 
find out -the amount of powder and forget to multiply 
the amount of water employed. In other words, each 
color had been dissolved in the same amount of water. 
Therefore, it becomes necessary to multiply the amount 
of water by the number of colors you have employed 
and a slight error becomes greater when it comes 
absolutely essential to see to it that a complete solution 
of the color material has been made. If you wish to 
be absolutely certain, put a bit of cotton in a small IT^!^,^J^^ 
funnel and run the solution through this. If no sedi- 
ment is left on the cotton, you can safely go ahead, 
but if there is sediment, throw the cotton and the sedi- 
ment into the graduate and vessel and agitate the mix- 
ture until the solution is complete. Always bear in 
mind that a slight error becomes greater when it comes 
to make up a formula into gallon lots. 

In a chemical formula, and the one now uppermost 
in the trade is fumed oak, I strongly recommend doing 
the varying in the bichromate of potash rather than in 
the alkali, such as caustic, carbonate of potash or 
ammonia, as the effect of the alkali is practically gov- 
erned by the one ounce to the gallon formula, and the 
variance of the shade is more readily produced by the 
strength of the bichromate. 

Where a first coat of tannic or pyrogallic acid is 
given, increase the strength in the pyrogallic acid 
rather than in the strength of the tannic acid, and bear 
in mind that the atmosphere has a whole lot to do in 
turning these chemicals brown. That pyrogallic acid 
mixed with an alkali turns brown, and that some of the 
most beautiful shades of brown can be produced by 
mixing a solution of pyrogallic acid with carbonate of 
soda or potash, and sulphite of soda, coating the wood 
with this and entirely omitting the bichromate, is true. 
To those who are not using a fuming box, let me sug- 
gest that they make a few experiments. In the few 
preceding sentences, we have told the trade something. 
We have told more than is realized, we believe, and if 
the manufacturer be alert he can work upon the fore- 
going suggestions to his own surprise and satisfaction. 



EFFECT OF 
ATMOSPHERE 
ON CHEMICALS 



252 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



AGE OF FINISH 
OF GOLDEN 
OAK AFFECTS 
MATCHING 



In golden oak, where a board is sent in to be 
matched, endeavor to make up your mind whether it 
has been of recent finish or whether it is an old sample. 
Make up your mind whether it is one in which the 
effect has been produced by the use of a colored filler, 
by which I mean a filler stain in which some of the 
stain material has been incorporated. This you can 
usually tell by closely examining the flake and the 
smooth portions of the wood. Don't look at the pores 
at all. If the smooth portions present an uniformity of 
color, you may conclude that the piece was originally 
stained and then filled. And again you know that prac- 
tically all the golden oak is made by the use of an oil 
stain. Asphaltum being the base, the color is aug- 
mented by the use of an oil soluble yellow, brown and 
black. A good quality of asphaltum is required, and 
in a case of this kind, proceed about as follows : 

Dilute the asphaltum with an equal part of turpen- 
tine. Make the solution of the three colors, that is 
three separate solutions, all of a known strength. Then 
add to each enough of the asphaltum solution until you 
have the shade, judging the shade by the flakes only, 
applying the stain and wiping oflF with a rag which has 
been wet with naphtha. Add just enough naphtha 
to take off the stain clean, for you will find that this 
stain will look like a brown varnish. You will also 
notice that by the addition of colors to the asphaltum 
solution you have diluted this solution, all of which, 
must be taken into your calculations when making up 
the larger formula. When this formula is produced 
and you are ready to go ahead, make up the stain and 
instead of wiping off with a rag, fill it with an uncol- 
ored filler. The spreading of the filler will take up 
the excess stain, and color the filler as it is rubbed into 
the pores. Then, of course, when this is done, clean 
up. Care must be taken in matching to go very easy 
on the yellow, depending largely upon the asphaltum to 
produce this yellow shade. 

While golden oak is supposed to be more uniform 
color, you will find by observing factory samples much 
variance in shade is seen, and the nicety of match can 
be made by following the above suggestions. 



I 



CHAPTER XLIX 

SURFACING AND VARNISHING 

N ORDER to insure a durable finish goods should 
never be surfaced until the filler is thoroughly dry. 
This usually takes from 24 to 48 hours. Even if 



one is in a hurry for the goods, it will be better to make 

sure that the filler is dry because if it is not and the ,„^ ^^^ 

surfacmg and varnishing proceeded with, much more 

time will be lost through the imperfect oxidation of the 

oil in the filler and the effect this will have upon the 

subsequent coats than has been gained. Filler that has 

been subjected to a temperature of 70 degrees F. for 

24 hours may appear to be dry, and if the goods are a 

cheap grade and will receive only one coat of varnish it 

might be safe to go ahead and coat them up. In fact, 

some factories making a cheap line of goods coat all of 

their stuff within 24 hours after it is filler. But a large 

percentage of these same shops have considerable 

trouble with "printing." These factories find it almost 

impossible to pack their goods for shipment so that 

the impress of the wrapping paper is not left upon the 

varnish. Some shops making a medium and high grade 

line are trying to crowd their goods ahead quickly 

during the early stages of the finishing process, and no 

matter what time they give their varnish to dry they importance 

have trouble with printing. BEm ''donT'' 

If there is one time more than another when ^^^^^^ 
patience should be considered a virtue in the finishing 
room that time is during the early stages of the finish- 
ing process. It is now the foundation of the future 
beauty of the goods is being laid and much depends on 
how the work is done. These remarks apply of course 
to factories that keep their finishing rooms at a tem- 
perature of about 70 degrees F. Where the highest 
quality of a durable finish is desired the installation of 
a high temperature drying system may well be con- 
sidered. Goods finished a quarter of a century ago in 
a temperature of 70 degrees still look well. Will the 



254 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



AVOID GREAT 
TEMPERATURE 
CHANGES IN 
VARNISH 



WHAT IS 
THE BEST 
SURFACER? 



same thing be said 25 years hence of goods finished 
today in a temperature of 130 degrees? If we will not 
be able to do so it will not be because the system is 
wrong but because we have applied the system to the 
wrong material. 

Varnish makers of the past decade have been en- 
deavoring to produce a varnish that will give good 
results in a temperature of 70 degrees, and suddenly 
and without any change in its composition to submit 
it to a temperature of 130 degrees is certainly a 
problematical experiment. Unless varnish, after it is 
thoroughly dry, retains a certain amount of its original 
elasticity it cannot withstand the varying tempera- 
tures to which it will be subjected. We know that 
varnish that is subjected to a very low temperature 
within a few hours after being applied loses its elas- 
ticity much sooner than would otherwise be the case, 
and very often cracks before it leaves the factory. 
Whether extreme heat will produce a similar result has 
yet to be determined and the question cannot be settled 
for some time to come. 

However, in the natural order of things, the more 
rapid systems for the finishing room that are knocking 
at our doors must be admitted sooner or later, and they 
are bound to stay with us. When varnish makers take 
the new order of things into consideration and adapt 
their wares to it, the system of rapid processes in the 
finishing room will be recognized as the standard of up- 
to-dateness and finishers will listen to the veteran's 
tales of today and wonder at the snail-like pace of that 
bygone age. That time is coming. 

What constitutes the best surfacer is a question that 
has received serious consideration in*many quarters for 
several years. For many years shellac was the stand- 
ard surfacer for all kinds of work, but when the price 
rose from 15 to 65 cents per pound, a demand was 
created for a more moderate priced article and the 
varnish surfaces came into being. But varnish sur- 
facers have not always given entire satisfaction. This 
was not because in the nature of the case a varnish sur- 
facer was not a good thing, but because many surfacers 
were made of cheap materials and were used on work 



SURFACING AND VARNISHING 255 

for which they were entirely unsuited. The majority 

of varnish surfacers contain a pigment and for that 

reason must be used with extreme caution on woods 

that are easily clouded. On oak a varnish pigment 

surfacer is preferable to shellac. This applies only 

to such oak finishes as are bodied up with varnish 

and are stained with a stain which turpentine will 

not lift. Turpentine stains must be held down with a 

coat of thin shellac before they can be filled with oil ^^^^^ ^,^„^rj^„ 

filler, and the stam that will lift with an oil filler will surfacers 

lift with a varnish surfacer. A varnish surfacer may contain 

be used, however, as a first coater over such stains pigment 

after the wood has been filled. 

Every finisher can make his own surfacer, which is 
a comparatively simple matter, and by making it him- 
self he can have a high grade article at the price of an 
inferior one. 

In making surfacer it is well to use the same grade 
of varnish that will be used for bodying up. It has 
been diflficult to understand the process of reasoning 
by which men come to the conclusion that there is some 
advantage in laying a foundation of cheap material. 
The axiom that "the chain is no stronger than its weak- 
est link" is as true here as elsewhere. A heavily coated 
piano may have the under coats of varnish badly 
cracked while the outer coats are yet good. But so 
far as the appearance is concerned, the outer coats 
may be of the same material as the under ones, because 
the cracks show through, and soon the outer coats are use same 
cracked also. grade for 

One of the disadvantages of a varnish surfacer is 
that it ought not to be coated over the same day that it 
is applied, whereas shellac may be coated over inside 
of a few hours. If one will put his stuff through the 
finishing room in a systematic way, this seeming dis- 
advantage will not be noticed. Allow a given time 
between every operation, then every job will be ready 
for the next process when it is required, and it will be 
required when it is ready. 

The following formula has been tested for several 
years and when made of good materials it has no 
superior : 



SURFACER AS 
FOR BODY 



256 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



TESTED 

FORMULA FOR 
SURF ACER 



LESS VARNISH 
USED THAN 
WHEN SHELLAC 
IS USED 



1 gallon Varnish. 
14 gallon Brown Japan. 
1 quart Pure Turpentine. 
6 pounds very fine Silex. 

Mix the first three liquids and allow them to stand 
for half an hour or so and then put in the silex. It is 
well to sift the silex to remove any foreign substance 
and reduce any lumps. Allow the mixture to stand 24 
hours; strain through book muslin and reduce with 
benzine as required to the proper consistency. When 
using keep it well stirred from the bottom. 

The proper proportion of silex to japan and varnish 
depends on the body of these two parts. In the fore- 
going formula it is one pound of silex to a quart of the 
liquids. That proportion is correct for a varnish with 
a good body. The quantity may be increased or de- 
creased as the actual working out may prove to be 
required. It should dry flat, but not too dead. If too 
dead, less silex should be used. When the proper pro- 
portion of the ingredients has been used, it will sand 
almost as easy as shellac, and produce a beautiful, 
smooth surface for the varnish. It does not require to 
be brushed more than enough to spread it out, and it 
may be put on as heavy as one may wish without 
danger of crawling. 

One of the chief advantages of a surfacer of this 
kind is that being of the same material as the varnish, 
the two will unite much more perfectly than will shellac 
and varnish, and there is less danger of the latter 
chipping off'. 

A surfacer of this kind has no equal for medium 
close-grained woods such as curly birch and bird's-eye 
maple which are to be finished natural color. In addi- 
tion to making a perfect surface for the varnish, it fills 
up all the minute pores of the wood and, consequently, 
less varnish is required than when shellac is used. For 
these finishes the surfacer is applied on the bare wood 
and no filler is required. 

To finish maple stained mahogany, this surfacer 
may be applied to the stained wood without filling, but 
it would be advisable to add a little extra varnish to 
prevent clouding. The pores of stained wood, if a 



SURFACING AND VARNISHING 257 

spirit or water stain has been used, are more open than 

when the wood is in the white and are liable to draw 

the varnish away from the pigment and leave it opaque 

and gray. But if a first class job is desired a better 

way would be to apply to the stained wood a coat of 

very thin shellac before the surfacer is applied. This 

will enable one to make a perfectly smooth foundation 

for the surfacer. The shellac will seal up the minute 

cells of the wood, and when sanded will remove any 

fuzz which the stain may have raised. A foundation staining 

for the varnish prepared in this way will require much maple as 

less varnish and less rubbing to produce a high class mahogany 

finish. 

What is known as Surfaced Oak or Golden Oak 
Finish is an imitation oak finish with the figure of 
quartered oak printed on the wood. Some factories 
have trouble with the figure chipping off. Where this 
trouble is experienced, the cause is usually in the fact 
that the printing was done on a coat of surfacer in- 
stead of on the bare wood. 

This imitation oak is best made on wood which 
shows very little of its own figure and has very little 
color. Birch and maple and sometimes basswood and 
other light colored woods are used usually. The wood 
is not stained, because to do so would draw out its 
figure. The color is built up with the various coats. 
To prevent these colored coats from drawing out the 
natural figure of the wood, a coat of pale, colorless 
surfacer is applied to the bare wood, and the color is 
built on top of this. Some finishers put this pale sur- 
facer on before the stock is put through the printing ii^itation 
machine. That is a mistake. The better way would 
be to do the printing on the bare wood and put the pale 
surfacer on top of the printing. In this way the print- 
ing will last as long as the wood lasts and there will be 
no trouble from chipping. When the printing comes 
in between two coats a good union is not formed ; hence 
the frequent trouble. 

While this varnish pigment surfacer is adapted for 
a great many woods and finishes, there is one wood for 
which we cannot recommend it, and that is mahogany. 
It may be used even on this wood if it is to be finished 



258 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



PIGMENT 
SURFACER NOT 
GOOD ON 
MAHOGANY 



THE USE OF 

BLEACHED 

SHELLAC 



a very light color, and the surfacer is made with a very- 
small quantity of the pigment. But this is not desir- 
able. The best surfacer for mahogany is bleached 
shellac. This should not be used very heavy ; not more 
than two pounds of gum to the gallon of solvent. 
Methylated spirits or denatured alcohol, if pure grain 
alcohol cannot be obtained, should be used as a solvent. 

In using bleached shellac the utmost care must be 
exercised. Bleached shellac is a very perishable article, 
as a result of the method of producing it. It is ordinary 
orange shellac from which the yellow matter has been 
chemically extracted. The chemicals used are chloride 
of lime, muriatic acid and soda. These are washed out 
as far as possible after the bleaching process is com- 
pleted, after which the shellac is dried. But it is not 
always possible to wash out every particle of these 
chemicals, and these particles that remain bring about 
in time a condition known as "calsing," and the shellac 
becomes insoluble, or only partially so. This condition 
may be detected by straining through book muslin or 
cheese cloth. If it is found to contain particles of 
shellac that have not dissolved within a reasonable 
time, it is not safe to use it. The use of such shellac 
will produce a milky cast to the finish which will show 
distinctly in a clear light. 

Bleached shellac should not be applied in a cool, 
damp atmosphere. If the humidity is high it will not 
work freely and when drying is apt to show white in 
places, especially where it has lapped when being 
brushed on. This whiteness will disappear when the 
shellac becomes dry, but it may not resume its clear- 
ness and is likely to give the finish a clouded effect. To 
prevent this, raise the temperature of the room until 
the humidity is below the danger point. This can be 
determined by the way the shellac works. Shellac 
should be applied quickly and with as little brushing 
as possible. 

A sandpaper with a very fine cutting surface and 
soft back should be used for sanding shellac. We can- 
not give the grade because all makes of paper are not 
graded alike. If the paper clogs it is caused by one of 
two things. Either the shellac is not dry enough or it 



SURFACING AND VARNISHING 259 

is adulterated. In sanding large surfaces it is well to 
use a soft block. Thick felt, such as is used by rubbers, 
makes a fine sanding block. Large surfaces can be 
sanded much quicker and more evenly when a block is 
used for holding the paper than when the paper is held 
in the hand. If any edges are sanded through, they 
should be re-stained and shellaced before being var- 
nished. This re-shellacing is necessary because if any 
of the stain laps over on the shellac it will likely show ^^ sanding 
green after the varnish is applied. The shellac will large 
prevent this. surfaces 

Goods should be thoroughly dusted before they 
enter the varnish room. Too many finishers are care- 
less in this respect. They see that the parts to be var- 
nished are dusted nicely, but give no care to the rest. 
This is a mistake. The varnish room should be kept 
as free from dust as possible and this can be accom- 
plished only by not allowing it to enter. 

Varnish should never be put on in a lower tempera- 
ture than 70 degrees F. and the varnish should also be 
as near that heat as possible. Varnish will work more 
freely in a high temperature, and when the wood, the 
varnish and surrounding atmosphere are about the ' 
above named temperature, conditions are ideal. 

The first coat of varnish ought not to be quite as 
heavy as the succeeding coats. If a medium heavy 
varnish is being used all that is necessary is to put on 
just a little less. But if the varnish is of heavy or extra thin varnish 
heavy body it should be reduced slightly for the first is the best 
coat. The best varnish reducer is thin varnish. To reducer 
prepare this reducer, take one part varnish (the same 
varnish that is to be reduced) and two parts pure tur- 
pentine. Shake these together well and let stand 24 
hours before using. This will reduce the consistency 
of the varnish without tearing down the body as pure 
turpentine would. 

The first coat of varnish should be allowed to dry 
thoroughly before the second is applied. Here is where 
a great many finishers make a fatal mistake. They act 
on the assumption that the first coat of varnish requires 
less time to dry than the second, and the second coat 
less than the third, etc. Looking at it from their view- 



260 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



NEED OF DRY- 
ING BETWEEN 
SUCCESSION 
OF COATS 



WHY SOME 
FINISH COATS 
DO NOT DRY 



point they are right, but their viewpoint is wrong. 
From their point of observation they see conditions 
which ought not to exist, and which conditions are of 
their own making. If the second coat of varnish is put 
on before the first coat is perfectly dry and hard, we 
create a condition which renders it necessary to give 
more time to the second coat than was given to the first, 
and the same with the third coat. But it is not the last 
coats that require the extra time, but the coats that are 
underneath. By putting on varnish in this way we get 
on three, four or five coats as the case may be, and not 
one of them dry. Each coat stops drying the very 
moment the next coat is applied and does not resume 
until the condition of each is the same. In fact, unless 
the previous coat has reached a certain stage the last 
coat will not only arrest the drying process, but will 
enter into and partially dissolve the under coat, reduc- 
ing it to a semi-liquid state. 

The above will explain the reason why so many 
nnishers find it impossible to get their varnish dry after 
applying three or four coats. If each coat were allowed 
to dry thoroughly before the application of the suc- 
ceeding coat, much time would be saved and a better 
job assured. 

Where varnish is to be rubbed to a perfectly smooth 
finish, the second last coat should not be allowed to 
become so dry that a complete union cannot be formed 
between it and the last coat. If this union is not per- 
fect and the rubber goes through one coat into the 
other, the break between the two varnishes will show 
up in patches. It is not likely that on four-coated work 
the rubber will go through the last two coats, at least 
he ought not to ; consequently it will be quite safe to 
allow the first two coats to become thoroughly hard- 
ened before the third is applied. When this is done a 
much heavier coat may be put on for the third coat 
than would otherwise be safe, thus minimizing the 
danger of going through. When this coat is medium 
dry, the fourth may be put on. 

A great many varnishers are puzzled at their inabil- 
ity to do clean work, while a fellow workman in the 
same room, and working under the same conditions, 



SURFACING AND VARNISHING 261 

has scarcely a speck on his work. Many are of the 
opinion that there is some great secret about clean 
varnishing, but there is not. On the contrary, there are 
many little ones. Much that is called dirt on a var- 
nished surface is not dirt at all, but particles of con- 
gealed varnish that have been worked off the varnish 
pot or out of the brush and spread over the surface. 
It is a common thing to see the sides and edge and 
crossbar of the varnish pot heavily coated with con- 
gealed varnish the accumulation of days and weeks and secrets of 
sometimes months. The brush coming in contact with varnish 
this congealed mass works off fine particles which are drying 
gathered up with the varnish and spread over the 
surface. These particles of congealed varnish harden 
very slowly and are the cause of much of the trouble 
the rubber has with " pulling out " when rubbing var- 
nish that otherwise ought to be thoroughly hard. 

The remedy for all this is to keep everything clean. 
The crossbar of the varnish pot should be a moveable 
one, and should be removed from the pot and cleaned 
whenever work is suspended for any length of time. 
If work is suspended for an hour or so, and the varnish 
is left on the crossbar, it will congeal partially in that 
time, and when work is resumed the fresh varnish will 
soften it sufficiently to break its hold and it will be 
gathered up and carried along in the fine particles. The 
top and outside of the pot should be cleaned off with a 
cloth and a little benzine every noon and night. When 
a brush not in use, do not lay it down in such a way 
that the hair will come in contact with the edge or sides keeping 
of the pot. A block of wood, two inches thick and varnish 
about eight inches square, will be large enough to lay clean 
them on with the hair projecting over the edge. The 
hair of the brush should not be allowed to come in 
contact with anything except the work it is to do. 

If a brush is to be out of use, for more than a few 
minutes, it should be put away in a thin varnish or pure 
turpentine provided for that purpose. Care should be 
exercised to see that all brushes thus out of commis- 
sion have the hair completely immersed in the liquid ; 
otherwise the varnish on the exposed part will harden, 
and when the brush is brought into use again, this hard 



262 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



HOW TO 
GET PROPER 
DRYING OF 
VARNISH 



RUBBING AND 
POLISHING 



varnish will crumble and the brush will be known as 
*'lousy." 

Attention to these details will bring relief to many 
a varnisher who is worrying because he cannot do clean 
work and wondering where the dirt comes from. 

The conditions necessary for the proper drying of 
varnish are a well heated atmosphere with facilities for 
keeping the air in constant circulation and replenishing 
the supply of oxygen. The drying of varnish is quite 
different from the drying of wood. In the latter case 
drying means the expulsion of moisture which is car- 
ried away in the form of vapor by the air. In the 
former case the varnish extracts from the air as it 
passes by an element known as oxygen and absorbs it. 
Varnish throws off very little moisture, consequently 
the term "drying" is scarcely the correct one. It is a 
hardening process and is scientifically known as oxida- 
tion, the oxidizing of the oils in the varnish by com- 
bining them with oxygen which has a hardening effect. 
.Heat is necessary to the proper oxidation because it 
releases the oxygen from the air, and at the same time 
renders the varnish more receptive. Circulation of air 
is necessary in order that the air may be removed from 
the varnish after the oxygen has been extracted and 
other air brought in its place. Ventilation is necessary 
in order that the air that has been depleted of oxygen 
may escape and fresh air with plenty of this necessary 
element admitted. This fresh air should be admitted in 
such a way that it will not become a disturbing factor. 
It should be admitted in small but steady quantities 
at various parts of the room, so that it may readily 
diffuse itself throughout the whole air space without 
in any perceptible degree affecting the temperature of 
the room. 

Rubbing and polishing are important branches of 
finishing. It is here .that the final touches are added 
and no matter how well all previous work may have 
been done, it will all count for naught, and may be 
spoiled entirely, if this work is not done right. Con- 
siderable practice is required before one can be an 
expert rubber. There are various kinds of rubbing. 
There is the rough rubbing on carriage and automobile 



SURFACING AND VARNISHING 263 

bodies that is done with lump pumice and water. Some 
interior finishers, chiefly among house painters and 
finishers, rub with fine sandpaper and oil. 

In piano factories there is the coarse rubbing which 
is rubbing down to a perfectly smooth surface the first 
coats of varnish which were put on to make a body and 
give the finish a depth. This rubbing is done to pre- 
pare the body for the final flowing or polishing coat. 
This is done with coarsely ground pumice and water, 
the rubbing being done with blocks of thick felt. This 
rubbing ought not to be done until the varnish is thor- 
oughly hard. But if the goods are wanted rush, a little 
time may be saved by rubbing down carefully before 
the varnish is quite hard, and after the rubbing allow 
the remaining varnish to harden thoroughly before the 
flow coat is applied. The rubbing will take off at least 
from one and one-half to two coats which leaves just 
that much less to harden. In any event a few hours 
should elapse before the flow coat is applied after the 
body has been rubbed. 

Then comes the fine rubbing. This is done with fine 
felt and finely pulverized, sifted and bolted rotten stone 
and water. This rubbing is done on the flow or polish- 
ing coat and the utmost care must be taken not to rub 
through to the under coats. This coat when properly 
applied is very clean and smooth and, therefore, 
requires very little rubbing; the main thing being to 
rub it evenly all over. After the fine rubbing, 12 to 24 
hours should elapse before polishing. 

The old method of hand polishing is still in vogue 
in many piano factories. This is done by slightly Y^^_^^, 
moistening the hand with water and with a very small 
quantity of very fine rotten stone, rubbing the varnish 
with the hand, using a circular motion. The quantity 
of rotten stone is gradually diminished until none what- 
ever is on the hand and the final polishing is done with 
the bare hand, after which the surface is oiled with 
sweet oil and cleaned off dry. 

In furniture factories this method of finishing very 
rarely is carried out. The goods are varnished with 
the same grade of varnish throughout and the rubbing 
and polishing follow each other on the varnish put on 



COARSE RUB- 
BING WITH 
PUMICE STONE 



ROTTEN STONE 



264 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



METHOD USED 
IN FURNITURE 
FACTORIES 



FELT USED 
IN RUBBING 
WITH PUMICE 



for a body. If the goods are to.be polished they first 
should be rubbed down smooth with water and medium 
coarse pumice stone, using felt as a rubbing block. 
Plenty of water should be kept on the work to prevent 
the varnish caking on the bottom of the block. No 
matter how careful one may be in this respect some 
varnishes will harden on the bottom of the felt, and, 
if not removed, will scratch and tear the surface. The 
expert rubber instantly can detect this gathering of 
varnish on the felt from the feeling of it as his hand 
draws it over the surface. This caking is more liable 
to take place where the varnish is not quite hard, but 
will take place wuth some varnishes no matter how 
thoroughly hardened they may be. 

If there are four or five coats of varnish on the 
goods to be rubbed, it is well to have two grades of 
pumice, one grade somewhat finer than the other to 
finish ofiE" with. If one attempts to rub down four or 
five coats of varnish with one application of pumice, 
he will find before he gets through that there is too 
much of the varnish mixed with the pumice to enable 
him to make a good job, and that the caking on the 
felt is greatly facilitated thereby. If he cleans off this 
mixture of ground varnish and pumice, and starts to 
finish oflt with a second application of pumice of the 
same grade, he will find the work so badly scratched 
that great difficulty will be experienced in getting it in 
shape for polishing. If fresh pumice is required after 
the rubbing is nearing completion, a fine grade should 
be used. 

The felt used for rubbing with pumice is a coarser 
grade than that used for fine rubbing, and may be 
obtained from one-quarter inch to two inches thick, 
the latter thickness being preferable for heavy rubbing. 
It is made in various degrees of firmness, a medium 
hard felt being the best for this work. Some rubbers, 
if the work is very heavy, will start to cut down with 
burlap, using this until the job is about half rubbed, 
then using the block ard finish off with a piece of thin 
felt. Burlap will hold the pumice better and cut a little 
quicker than the felt, but the work done is not so fine 
and the felt must be used afterward. 



WHEN TO DO 
FINE RUBBING 



SURFACING AND VARNISHING 265 

If the varnish is fairly hard at the time this first 
rubbing is done, the fine rubbing may be proceeded 
with at once. If it is not too hard, it should be allowed 
to stand from 12 hours up. according to its condition, to 
give it a chance to "sweat" out and take on a hard sur- 
face on which to do the fine rubbing. While the fine 
rubbing in this case is done in the same way as on 
pianos, yet the object to be attained is somewhat dif- 
ferent. When rubbing a flow coat of varnish there is a 
certain amount of grit to be rubbed off", and while doing 
so, one must keep the surface in condition for polishing. 
In the case under consideration, where one is fine-rub- 
bing a surface that has been coarse-rubbed, the object 
is to prepare the surface for polishing by removing all 
the scratches made by the pumice. From 12 to 24 
hours should always be allowed between the fine rub- 
bing and the polishing to insure a durable polish. A 
longer time than this may be necessary unless the var- 
nish is fairly dry. 

In the opinion of the writer, the modern method of 
polishing is in every respect equal to the hand polish- 
ing still in vogue in some piano factories. Of course, 
in the modern method a great deal depends on the 
composition of the liquid used in the process. There 
are many formulas for making polish, but the follow- 
ing is one that has been tested for several years on high 
grade work. It produces a very high and durable pol- 
ish with a minimum amount of labor. 

1 gallon Paraffine Oil. 

1 gallon Pure Turpentine. formula for 

20 ounces Oil of Cedar. polish 

12 ounces Oil of Citronella. 

The longer this polish has been made before using, 
the better it will do its work. It is used in connection 
with rotten stone in the ordinary way with a pad. A 
very soft cotton waste makes an ideal polishing pad. 
This polish is improved by the addition of a little water, 
but it cannot be mixed with the polish. Take a small 
handful of the cotton waste and thoroughly saturate 
with water, then wring as dry as possible. Rub this 



266 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



POLISH PLAIN 

SURFACES 

CROSSWISE 



HOW TO MAKE 
SATIN FINISH 



damp cotton waste over the surface to be polished im- 
mediately before commencing operations. This will 
supply the required water. 

If a plain surface like a table top is to be polished, 
one should start at the ends, polishing- these crosswise. 
This crosswise polishing is necessary in order to be 
sure of a high polish out to the extreme ends and it 
must be done at the outset otherwise the cross polishing 
will leave a mark. This polishing is not done with 
circular motions the way French polishing iand hand 
polishing are done. The motion is a straight stroke 
extending from one end to the other of the surface 
polished. 

After the polish has been brought to the highest 
point possible by this process, its brilliancy may be 
deepened by rubbing rapidly with the bare hand using 
the least possible quantity of polish — just enough to 
prevent the hand sticking to the varnish. Rub with a 
circular motion the same as when hand polishing. 

Clean the polish off with a soft cloth moistened with 
alcohol. The greatest care must be exercised in doing 
this. Have but a small quantity of alcohol on the cloth 
and go over the surface very lightly, using a circular 
motion. If there is too much alcohol on the cloth, it is 
certain to burn into the varnish and destroy the polish. 
Sprinkle a small quantity of the alcohol on the cloth 
and twist it up tightly. This will allow the liquid to 
spread itself throughout the whole cloth and reduce 
to a minimum the possibility of burning the varnish. 

To make a satin finish the varnish is rubbed down 
with water and pumice and then oiled. A finish a little 
more dull than satin finish is made by rubbing the 
varnish with oil and pumice. If goods are heavily 
coated, the large flat surfaces such as tops and fronts 
and other prominent parts of the work, should first be 
water rubbed and allowed to stand for a few hours 
before being oil rubbed. This will prevent "pulling 
out." 

To make a dull lustreless finish that will withstand 
the extremes of any climate, hot or cold, moist or dry, 
proceed as follows: 

After the work has been stained, apply a coat of 



SURFACING AND VARNISHING 267 

very thin shellac. This shellac should not be heavier 
than 24 ounces gum to the gallon of solvent. When 
this is dry, sand smooth with very fine paper and put 
on three or four coats of pure banana oil. Sand the 
last coat well with fine paper, then wax. Banana oil is 
a very powerful solvent and must be applied very rap- 
idly and with no more brushing than is required to lay 
it on. If more than this is done, it will raise the under 
coat. 

It will not show laps or streaks when dry, so that 
fear of trouble from this source need not lead a man 
into brushing more than is required. If the oil be- 
comes too thick for use, it may be reduced with alcohol 
or methylated spirits. 

Banana oil dries without the slightest lustre. So 
lustreless is it that after several coats have been applied 
the surface still retains the appearance of bare wood. 
If a little lustre is desired, it may be obtained by mak- 
ing the shellac for the first coat heavier, say about two 
and one-half pounds of gum to a gallon of solvent. 

The above makes a good finish for fumed and 
cathedral oak and other similar finishes. It is also suit- 
able for carvings and pebbled work. 

The dipping process in finishing is one that has 
found favor with several lines of goods, particularly 
turned spindle work such as piano stools, etc. On work 
of this kind much better results can be obtained, and 
with less labor, by the dipping process than by the 
brush method. To produce the highest quality of finish 
on stools suitable for the piano trade with but three 
applications after the stain is on, and that without any 
sanding of the turned parts, would have been consid- 
ered impossible a few years ago, and is considered so 
today in not a few shops. 

But it is among the every-day things of at least one 
shop, and the process is very simple. The walnut and 
mahogany finish are dipped in their respective stains 
and allowed to dry. The wood is birch and the stains 
are water-stains.) They are then dipped in a very thin 
varnish or a cheap grade. This coat penetrates the 
pores and seals up the fine cells of the wood so that the 
liquid of the next coat cannot enter. When this is thor- 



TO PRODUCE 
LUSTRELESS 
FINISH 



FINISHING 
BY DIPPING 



268 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



oughly dry, a coat of pigment surfacer is applied, 
surfacer is made as follows: 



This 



PIGMENT 

SURFACER 

FORMULA 



1 gallon Varnish. 

1 gallon Brown Japan. 

8 pounds Silex (very fine) 



NEEDS MUCH 
TIME FOR 
HARDENING 



This surfacer is brUvShed on and is the only brush 
coat the stools receive. It is put on full weight and as 
much of it put on as can be done safely without run- 
ning. On turned stool legs there is much end wood and 
the surfacer covers the v/hole with a porcelain-like 
surface which holds the varnish out perfectly. When 
this surfacer is dry the flat tops are sanded. Then the 
whole stool is dipped in the varnish. It is allowed to 
drain, then the fat edge on the under side is cut off 
with a brush and the stool set away to dry. 

The firm referred to manufactures a general line of 
sanitary woodwork, and much fine work is turned out 
polished in one coat of varnish. The goods are dipped 
in a large pan of filler. On large flat surfaces such as 
tanks, if the wood is oak, the filler is brushed a little to 
work it into the pores. One big advantage of filling 
the tanks by the dipping process is that it coats the 
inside with a water-proof substance, and does it much 
more perfectly than could possibly be done with the 
brush. Closet seats and other small articles are dipped 
and not brushed. Forty-eight hours are allowed be- 
tween the filling and the surfacing. The surfacer used 
is made from the formula given in the chapter on 
Surfacing and Varnishing, and a good coat is put on. 
If the goods are to be shipped in the varnish gloss, the 
surfacer is allowed to dry 24 hours before sanding and 
varnishing. But if the goods are to be polished, 48 
hours are allowed. The coat to be rubbed and polished 
is put on somewhat heavier than that for varnish gloss 
finish, hence the necessity for allowing the surfacer a 
longer time to harden that the varnish may have every 
possible chance. The surfacer and varnish are put on 
the tanks and seats with a brush. 

In this factory two men and two boys will stain 
several thousand closet seats in a short time. The 



SURFACING AND VARNISHING 



269 



HOW MUCH 
STAINING MAY 
BE DONE 



stain is used warm and takes hold of the wood instantly. 
It is kept warm by means of a hot water vat. 

The vat is 30 inches wide by 60 inches long and 20 
inches deep. Inside the vat is a frame 14 inches high. 
A steam pipe enters at one end and extends along the 
bottom to the other end of the vat. The end of the pipe 
is closed, but along the side are about a dozen one- 
sixteenth inch holes for the steam to escape. There is 
also an overflow pipe, two inches from the top. 

The stain pan, which is six inches deep and made to 
fit the inside of the vat, rests on the frame. The vat is 
filled with water to the top of the overflow pipe and the rapidly 
steam turned on. This overflow pipe is necessary to 
carry away the condensed steam. If a coil with a return 
pipe were used the overflow pipe would not be neces- 
sary, but it would require more steam. When the water 
in the vats heats, the stain soon becomes warm, and as 
it is surrounded on the bottom and all four sides with 
water which comes up the side four inches, it is kept 
warm as long as it is in use. 

A wire hook is used for dipping the seat in the 
stain. The seat is placed on the hook and placed in one 
end of the stain pan, then drawn rapidly through the 
stain to the other end, then lifted out and set in another 
large pan to drain. They are then taken out and 
placed in racks made for the purpose. 



CHAPTER L 

VARNISHES AND THEIR DRYING 

IN RECENT years it was found that the finishing 
room equipment was falling behind. It was the 
one department that consumed the most time in 
obtaining results. Efforts to make quick drying var- 
nishes, surfacers, etc., did not meet with the demands. 
One reason why wax finishes were heralded was be- 
cause they could be turned out quickly. Years of ex- 
periments were made in an endeavor to find methods 
which would attain the desired end. 

It has been known a long time that weather and 
atmospheric conditions are of vital importance to the 
drying process in the finishing room. Summer as well 
as winter months carry with them difficulties which 
cause delay and uncertainties in the finishing room. 
The importance of this is appreciated when one con- 
siders the results that will follow when any under coat 
of stain, filler or varnish is not thoroughly dry when 
the following coat is applied. 

On a damp, humid day, the grain of the wood raises 
very perceptibly, as compared with a clear, dry day, 
making the surface to be coated uneven, and destroy- 
ing much of the effect of fine sanding, thus starting 
the finish under a disadvantage. 

Stains and fillers will not dry as well as under favor- 
able conditions, and especially when oil stains are used 
the filler is likely to cut into the stain, producing a 
mushy condition in the filler. If followed by the first 
coat of varnish on regular schedule, the varnish will 
have a similar tendency to cut into the filler, causing in 
turn a mushy coat of varnish, which will not dry hard 
and firm as under favorable conditions, and this condi- 
tion will prevail through all coats to the finishing coat 
of varnish. As a final result, none of the coats being 
as hard as under good conditions, the finish is compara- 
tively soft; a polishing varnish will not take as bright 
a polish and will rub and polish harder; gloss, rubbed 



DEMAND FOR 
QUICK DRYING 



THE CAUSE 
OF MUSHY 
COATS 



272 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



VARNISH DRY- 
ING DEPENDS 
ON SOLVENTS 



BEST DRYING 
CONDITION 
35 TO 45 PER 
CENT HUMIDITY 



or polished work will often develop sticking or printing 
troubles, and at a later date the gradual drying of these 
mushy undercoats will draw in the finish coats produc- 
ing loss of lustre and finish, or shrinkage. During such 
conditions the finishing materials are usually blamed 
for the disruption of finish or finishing schedules, when 
the drying condition of the atmosphere is the sole cause. 

Considerable quantities of fumes are thrown off by 
the drying of finishing materials, and we all know that 
varnish drying depends upon the evaporation of the 
solvents in the varnish, and of the oxidation of the 
gums and oils. Experiments have shown that humidity 
and temperature are two factors which should be con- 
trolled in the drying process. 

This condition is based on the scientific fact that the 
capacity of warm or hot air to carry humidity or mois- 
ture is enormously greater than that of cold air. For 
instance, air at 60 degrees Fahrenheit is completely 
saturated when it carries 4.8 grains of moisture per 
cubic foot ; whereas, air at 100 degrees Fahrenheit 
requires 19.8 grains of moisture per cubic foot to sat- 
urate it. Thus, although the temperature has been in- 
creased from 60 to 100 degrees, or 66 2-3 per cent, its 
capacity for moisture has been increased from 4.8 
grains to 19.8 grains per cubic foot, or 412.5 per cent. 

Humidity is expressed relatively in terms of per 
cent of saturation, which is 100 per cent. Air at 100 
degrees with 40 per cent humidity carries 7.9 grains of 
moisture per cubic foot, which is 40 per cent of 19.8 
grains, the saturation or dew point. 

Practical experience indicates that the best drying 
condition of the atmosphere at any temperature is with 
humidity of 35 to 45 per cent, although satisfactory 
results have been secured at both higher and lower per- 
centages. With a low humidity, however, there is a 
tendency to top-dry or case-harden, especially at a tem- 
perature above 100 degrees. With a high percentage 
the effect is to retard the oxidation or drying of var- 
nish. Humidity is determined by means of a hygro- 
deik, or "wet and dry bulb thermometer." 

The atmosphere normally has an average humidity 
of 60 to 70 per cent. When the percentage increases, 



V ARNISHES AND THEIR DRYING 273 

due to natural causes, it often reaches saturation or 
100 per cent, at which point the excess is precipitated 
in the form of rain. 

The experiments conducted brought forth many- 
patented schemes such as varnish drying kilns, ovens, 
and drying rooms. They were the results of experi- 
ments by varnish makers, and were based upon three 
vital points necessary to varnish drying : First, the con- 
stant circulation of fresh air, meaning the continual ^jjj^™ points 
presence of the drying agent, oxygen ; second, heat, and necessary to 
third, humidity. These three held under automatic con- varnish 
trol at the will of the operator produced the best results, drying 

It is generally accepted as a result of practical 
operation that the temperature at no time should ex- 
ceed 120 degrees, it being understood that the humidity 
should be at a desirable point and under control, and 
in the presence of continual circulation of fresh air, 
without a direct draft on the work. 

It has been proven bejond doubt that there is a 
limit to the time in which work can be coated, dried 
in a varnish drying system and recoated, with best 
results. It has been conclusively shown in practical 
shop operation, too, that as a general proposition, the 
varnish that gives the best results under old air drying 
schedules will give the best results in use in a varnish 
drying system. 

In the cool months of the year, the outside air, being 
at a low temperature, carries a very small amount of 
moisture, as described above. In this condition, it is 
brought into the factory or finishing room and heated 
to 75 to 90 degrees, the result being that its capacity 

J. . • - 1 • .1 1 • 11 CONDITION 

for carrying moisture, having thus been increased by 
raising its temperature, the percentage of humidity is 
lowered to anywhere from 25 per cent to 40 per cent, 
depending upon the temperature and humidity condi- 
tion of the outside air. This is a very desirable con- 
dition for drying varnish and other finishing materials. 
During the warm months, the condition is just the 
reverse. The outside air beii^.g hot, carries a relatively 
large amount of moisture per cubic foot, as described 
above. It is brought into the finishing room at the 
same temperature and in the same condition, and as the 



274 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



FINISHING 
ROOM 

SHOULD BE 
CONDITIONED 



SUCCESSFUL 
METHOD FOR 
DRYING 
PURPOSES 



temperature generally falls at night, its percentage of 
humidity is thus further increased, producing an ex- 
tremely bad drying condition. 

There is nothing that will give the desired results 
better than conditioning the entire finishing room, thus 
making the entire room practically a varnish drying 
room. By this we mean making provision in radiation 
for raising the temperature to 100 or 110 degrees every 
night during the year and providing adequate means 
for a constant circulation of fresh air, which can be 
done by the proper ventilators, or a fan, or both. Such 
an arrangement is both practical and economical in 
the majority of shops, and in any event the manufac- 
turer should provide for and have heat in his finishing 
room every night the year round, for reasons which 
have been explained. 

This can be accomplished by placing the heating 
coils or hot air pipes along the outside walls underneath 
the windows, and having ventilators take air from the 
center of the room and extend down to within a few 
inches of the floor. Hot blast pipes or heating coils 
should not be near the top or center of the room, as 
such a location of the heating pipes or coils will prevent 
good circulation and increase the expense of heating. 
The heat should be turned off at three or four o'clock in 
the morning to allow the room to cool off and the filler 
or varnish to harden before the workmen commence 
work for the day. Suppose the outside atmosphere was 
80 degrees with a humidity of 85 per cent, which would 
be a very hot, muggy day and an extremely bad drying 
atmosphere. By raising the temperature of the finish- 
ing room to 100 degrees at night, the percentage of 
humidity would be reduced thereby to 46 per cent, 
which is considered an excellent drying condition. 

A successful method for drying purposes, which is 
installed in many factories, is the setting aside of cer- 
tain rooms in which the temperature is continually 
maintained by means of steam coils over which is 
drawn fresh air. The room is provided with exhaust 
fans expelling the loaded air and causing a continual 
change of atmosphere, producing an ideal drying con- 
dition which will result in many hours saved in time. 



CHAPTER LI 

HOW VARNISH IS MADE 

VARNISH is composed of three essential ingredi- 
ents — gum to give hardness and lustre — oil to 
impart elasticity, and a solvent or thinner to 
keep it in a liquid state. After the varnish is applied, 
the solvent evaporates and the coating of gum and oil 
remains behind — thus these two materials have the 
most important bearing on varnish quality. There is 
also another ingredient present in almost all varnishes 
— "drier," usually composed of lead and manganese. It 
is almost invariably added to the oil before the varnish 
is made and varies according to the kind necessary to 
produce required results. 

Fossil gums are used for the best varnishes and are 
the hardened sap of trees that lived thousands of years 
ago. The sap ran upon the ground, hardened, became 
covered with decayed vegetation and fossilized. Today 
it is found several feet below the surface of the earth. 
The gum known as kauri is the chief and most widely 
used. There are so many grades of each kind of varnish 
gum that it means absolutely nothing to one when a 
manufacturer claims that he uses a certain kind of 
gum. For instance, kauri gum varies from 14 to 80 
cents a pound. So you see that it is not what the 
manufacturer says is in the varnish that counts, but 
the quality of the materials and, most of all, what the 
varnish will do. 

The oils used for varnish making are chiefly linseed 
oil and china wood oil, especially prepared and well 
aged. The solvent is chiefly turpentine. 

In the manufacture of varnish, the varnish maker 
first melts the gum over a coke fire in a copper kettle. 
When the gum is properly melted, the oil which is hot, 
having been separately heated, is added. The critical 
point in the entire process of varnish making is to tell 
the exact moment to add the oil to the melted gum, and 
experience alone can tell. If the gum is melted too 



INGREDIENTS 
OF VARNISH 



TWO OILS ARE 
UTILIZED 



276 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



PROCESS OF 
MANUFACTURE 



EVIDENCES OF 
POOR VARNISH 



long, it becomes dark in color; if underheated, it will 
be paler, but will lack durability. 

After adding the oil, the gum and oil are heated 
together until the two are thoroughly combined, when 
the kettle is withdrawn from the fire. The kettle is 
next taken into the thinning room where the mixture 
is allowed to cool to a certain temperature, and the 
thinner or solvent added. 

After thinning, the varnish is pumped through a 
pipe to a vat or cooler where, besides cooling, it settles 
and becomes clearer. From the cooler the varnish is 
passed through a filter press which removes all the dirt 
and foreign matter. The varnish is next pumped to 
the aging tanks where it is allowed to thoroughly 
ripen. This aging makes the varnish bright and clear. 

The tough oil varnishes are in greater demand than 
the spirit varnishes, although the defects in oil var- 
nishes are numberless. How often a person sits on a 
varnished chair and on rising finds the loose nap from 
his clothes sticking inseparably to the chair and the 
print of the weave of his clothes left in the soft, tacky 
varnish. Cases have come within the writer's obser- 
vation where the fine fabrics in ladies' dresses have 
been torn on being drawn from the sticky or "tacky" 
varnish. Cheap contract varnish, such as is often 
found on church pews and public benches generally 
is likely to show this undesirable quality. These var- 
nishes have incorporated in them non-volatile, non- 
drying oils such as the heavier mineral oils. These 
oils do not oxidize and dry to a solid elastic mass, as 
drying oils do, and as a consequence, the varnishes re- 
main "tacky" for an indefinite time and practically 
never dry. There is no remedy for this defect but to 
cut off the poor varnish with some solvent such as one 
quart acetone, one quart alcohol, one-half pint of water 
saturated with washing soda and one quart of benzine, 
in which a few ounces of paraffine or other wax have 
been melted. The mixture should be M^ell shaken and 
then brushed over the surface until the varnish is quite 
wet. To prevent evaporation, cover over the article 
with old sacks and let it stand for 20 minutes, giving 
time for the solution to soften up the varnish. On 



HOW VARNISH IS MADE 277 

removing the sacks, the varnish will be found very 
soft and easy to wipe off with a rag or to scrape off 
with a straight piece of glass or steel. When the 
article is cleaned and wiped thoroughly dry, revarnish 
with a good linseed oil varnish. The recipe just given 
will remove any varnish whatsoever whether old and 
hard or soft and sticky. 

Sweating of varnishes on damp, warm days is due, 
in many cases, to the presence of fish oils. These oils 
absorb moisture which causes the varnishes to become 
clammy and sticky to the touch, if the temperature is 
above 80 degrees Fahrenheit. The presence of oils 
having the power of absorbing water accounts for the 
excessive dews which collect on freshly varnished boats 
and canoes beached on an open shore of a summer's 
night. 

Good varnished furniture is the bane of every one 
who possesses it. It is "so easily" scratched, and 
scratches cannot be mended. Scratching will never be 
eliminated from furniture until a harder and tougher 
varnish is discovered. Scratches which appear white 
cannot be obliterated easily. They may be obscured, 
however, by rubbing well with a piece of cheese cloth 
moistened with a solution of nine parts linseed oil and 
one part lemon oil. Any failure to have this solution 
work correctly will arise from the fact that too much 
oil has been applied to the surface and the rubbing 
has not been sufficient. 

Whitening of varnish in the presence of water, for 
example, on the bottom of a canoe, is due to the ab- 
sorption of water by the varnish, especially those low in 
good resins, and may be corrected by allowing the var- 
nish to dry thoroughly in the open air (sunlight). 
This treatment causes the water to evaporate and re- 
stores the original appearance of the varnish. A spar 
varnish (that is, one high in resins) should then be 
applied to the thoroughly dry surface. If the surface 
is not allowed to dry thoroughly before the new coat of 
varnish is applied "blooming" will be the result, that 
is to say, the varnish will have a dull, smoky appear- 
ance like the bloom on a ripe blueberry. 

Every one has observed minute hairlines on highly 



REMOVING 
VARNISH 



WHITENING 
OF VARNISH 



278 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING POOM 

polished varnish surfaces, such as piano cases. This 
hairlining is the first stage in the cracking of the var- 
nish, and as the cracks widen the surface takes on a 
resemblance to alligator leather. This hairlining or 
cracking of varnish is caused primarily by too little 
HAIRLINES ON qj| bclug uscd in the varnish, or as varnish makers 
PIANO FINISH ^^^^ .^^ .c^ gj^Q^^ Q-j varnish" has been used. The lack 
of oil allows the varnish to dry in a short time, per- 
haps not longer than eight hours, but the coating is 
brittle and soon hairlines and these lines in time widen 
into unsightly cracks. Excess of cheap resins, such as 
losin often causes these defects to appear in varnished 
surfaces. 



VARNISH 
WORKS 



CHAPTER LII 

WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD VARNISH 

A GOOD varnish has good body, sufficient to give 
good lustre, yet not so heavy as to work badly 
and dry unevenly. It works smoothly under the 
brush and spreads in a thin, even coat, free from "°^ ^^^^ 
streakiness, still has sufficient consistency. It is elas- 
tic when dry and will not crack. It is durable and for 
outside work particularly indifferent to the effects of 
moisture and atmospheric conditions. It adheres 
tenaciously to the material to which it is applied. It 
is of good color that will not darken on exposure. A 
good varnish is good only for its particular purpose, as 
a varnish "long in oil" is intended for exterior work, 
floors, etc., while a varnish "short in oil" is intended 
for inside trim work. The safest method is to use the 
varnish which a reliable manufacturer recommends 
for a given purpose, for that purpose. 

How may varnish be tested? Varnish may be 
tested for paleness by placing a small quantity of it in 
a thin glass vial, and comparing it with any standard 
sample, by holding both samples to the light. 

Varnish may be tested for wear by applying two 
coats to two pieces of well dried, carefully sandpapered, 
newly planed wood. One piece of wood should be 
coated with the standard sample — the other piece with 
the varnish to be tested. Place both pieces of wood 
in an exposed exterior situation and note from time 
to time the appearance of the work. The piece which 
loses its brilliancy and cracks in the shortest time has 
been coated with the inferior varnish. Of course by 
this test, you must compare two varnishes intended for 
the same purpose, such as two interior varnishes, etc., 
and not two entirely different varnishes as an exterior 
varnish and an interior varnish. 

Another simple test is to revarnish any suitable sur- 
face with the suspected sample, and when the varnish 
is thoroughly dry, rub it quickly with the finger. If 



VARNISH 
TESTS 



280 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



HARDNESS 
OF VARNISH 



TEST IN ROOM 
OF 60° F. 



the new varnish crumble? up quickly, it evidently con- 
tains an inferior gum or most probably a large pro- 
portion of rosin. A good copal varnish cannot be re- 
moved in this way. A method of testing varnish for 
elasticity is to apply two coats of it to a sheet of linen 
and after it has properly dried, try its flexibility or 
tendency to chip off by crumbling between the hands. 

This question of hardness of varnish is so impor- 
tant that Dr. A. P. Laurie some time since patented an 
instrument, the principle of which was simply that of 
scratching a dried and varnished surface by means of 
a steel point. 

The apparatus enables accurate readings to be 
taken, and it has been found that a fine carriage var- 
nish will withstand a pressure equal to 1,200 grains, 
fairly good common varnishes 700, rosin varnishes 200 
to 400, and spirit varnishes only a pressure of 100 
grains. 

Thus we see why it is that the latter are bruised 
with even a light blow, while the best carriage var- 
nishes will withstand a considerable force. 

The odor of varnish gives some information as to 
its quality, while the time taken to harden the degree 
of flowing and working under the brush yields use- 
ful information. 

It may be added that it is the opinion of Dr. A. P. 
Laurie, based upon the experiments he has conducted 
with his instrument, that the best oil varnishes do not 
attain their maximum hardness until 12 months after 
they have been applied. 

The question of brilliancy of gloss I have not en- 
tered into, as this will be sufl^ciently obvious in com- 
paring several grades of varnish. It will be best to 
conduct these experiments in a well ventilated room 
heated to a temperature of about 60 degrees. 

A very hot room containing moisture-charged air 
is not suitable, as the conditions are adverse to the 
varnish properly drying, and may yield erroneous con- 
clusions. There are many more tests which could be 
made, but they mostly involve the use of heat, or some 
appliances which are not at hand. 

In writing this chapter I have kept steadily in mind 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD VARNISH 281 

the fact that the user is not so much interested in the 
chemical constituents of the material that he uses as 
he is in discovering whether they are genuine, and par- 
ticularly whether they will do the work for which they 
are intended. 

Never use spirit varnish, or enamel in which spirit 
varnish is used, for high class work requiring dura- 
bility. While such goods dry quickly, they work very 
hard under the brush, requiring more labor to apply ^^^^^^ ot^tc-p 

, _ _ AVUlU br IKl 1 

than does a high grade varnish, or an enamel made varnish in 
with a good oil varnish. Brush marks and laps show hj^jj class 
plainly. Furthermore, such materials have but little work 
durability, being made from soft gums. After the 
solvent evaporates, the only coating left on the surface 
is the weak, brittle coating of gum with nothing to bind 
it to the wood. As a result, it soon chips off. The chief 
use of spirit varnishes is in cheap cabinet work where 
the main object is to get the work out quickly and pro- 
cure a finish that will last long enough to sell the goods. 

Oil varnishes made from good hard gums, pure lin- 
seed oil and turpentine, are the most durable. After 
the thinner evaporates, it leaves a hard, tough coating 
of gum and oil behind, that adheres to the wood ; this 
is due to the hardness of the gum and the elasticity of 
the oil. which also binds the coating to the wood. 

An English work on varnishes gives the following 
points on brilliancy and lustre : "Brilliancy and lustre 
depend on the nature of the resin. The greater the 
ratio of resin to oil, the greater is the brilliancy and 
lustre of the varnish. As a matter of fact, the bril- brilliancy 
Tiancy of a varnish is a property dependent on its in- and lustre 
dex of refraction. As the index of refraction of a resin 
is greater than that of linseed oil, the more resin there 
is in a varnish the more lustrous it is. Hence the rea- 
son why spirit varnishes, after drying, are more lus- 
trous than oil varnishes. Each unit per cent of oil in 
the dried coating of an oil varnish diminishes its lustre 
pro rata. On the other hand, even if it increases the 
lustre proportionately, each unit per cent of resin in 
varnish, after a certain amount, diminishes its dura- 
bility pro rata. A compromise, therefore, has to be 
made according to the object in view in designing a 



282 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



DURABILITY 
SACRIFICED 
TO FINISH 



varnish for any given purpose. Where brilliancy is a 
desideratum the resin must not be less than one-third 
to one-fourth by weight of the dried coat. But where 
brilliancy leaves off, durability is only beginning, and 
varnishes, in which the resin only forms one-fourth of 
the dried coat, are used where great elasticity is de- 
manded. In the case of a piano varnish, for instance, 
durability, to a certain extent, is sacrificed to lustre, 
and the percentage of resin to oil preponderates in 
such a varnish. The harder the resin, the greater the 
brilliancy. A manila varnish made with the same num- 
ber of gallons of linseed per 100 pounds of manila is 
less lustrous than one made in the same ratio of oil to 
resin from Zanzibar copal. It is asserted that the index 
of refraction of a varnish is greater than that calcu- 
lated from its composition, but this may be due to a 
turpentine residuum left out of the calculation. Be this 
as it may, the skill and care with which a varnish is 
made are factors which cannot be lost sight of in any 
investigation into the cause of the brilliancy of varnish. 
Durability and resistance will vary with the pro- 
portion of linseed oil and the elasticity of its oxidation 
product. Varnishes should embody the brilliancy of 
the resins and the elasticity of the drying oils. 



CHAPTER LIII 

PROTECTION IN BUYING VARNISHES 

THE day of the varnish salesman and the foreman 
finisher getting together over the purchases of 
varnish has passed. The salesman now enters 
the business office to show his wares. If there is an ^^^nish 

SELLING 

inclination to buy of his house he is requested to send jyjgTHODs 
a gallon, and it is tested out. The foreman and the changed 
purchasing agent will make a physical test of the 
sample received. An eight ounce bottle of the sample 
is hermetically sealed and laid away. The balance is 
used in a practical way on pieces of furniture which 
are marked and dated, and put through subsequent 
operations in the regular manner, the result of the 
finish being noted in each stage. 

One manufacturer proceeds" as follows : He keeps 
a supply of boards in his finishing room of the wood 
used most in his plant. The boards are six inches wide 
and 24 inches long. They are put through the various 
finishing processes until they reach the point where 
varnish is required, whether it be the first coat or the 
polishing varnish. Usually three sample boards are 
used, one-half of which is covered with the old varnish 
in use, and the other half with the sample varnish. The 
pieces are left to dry for 10 days, and are then taken 
to the roof where a large rack has been erected to hold testing 
them. They are given a southern exposure at an angle before 
of 30 degrees. The pieces are looked over regularly, buying 
morning and night, and records are kept of changes 
and conditions. The boards are thus exposed to all 
kinds of weather until the varnish shows checking or 
crazing, when it will be noted whether the checking or 
crazing comes to both varnishes at the same time, or 
to which it came first. 

The manufacturer of furniture is not looking for 
a varnish that will stand up indefinitely under all forms 
of weather, but he does learn that a certain varnish 
will stand exposure to snow and rain in winter months 



?84 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



GRAVITY, 
VISCOSITY, 
FLASH TESTS 



DETERMINING 
VISCOSITY 



with no indications of checking or crazing for over 350 
hours, and when rubbed and polished in the finishing 
room will reveal a finished surface equal to anything 
in the factory. He seeks a record by which all the 
varnish from a certain concern may be judged. This 
can be done by three tests: Specific gravity, viscosity 
and the flash tests. 

Specific gravity of varnish is its weight compared 
with an equal quantity of water, which is 100. A bot- 
tle which will hold 100 grams of water is filled with 
varnish at 70 degrees F. The bottle is marked with its 
own weight. The bottle of varnish is weighed on 
scales graduated down to one seven-thousandths of a 
pound, and if the varnish is all right the register will 
show the specific gravity is from 80 to 90 compared 
with an equal amount of distilled water. If the varnish 
manufacturer has introduced substitute oils or gums 
there will be a change in the specific gravity for the 
reason that no two diflferent oils or gums have a like 
specific gravity. 

Viscosity of liquids is determined by the length of 
time it takes a certain quantity of it to run through a 
certain sized hole compared with the time it takes the 
same quantity of distilled water to run through the 
same hole. Knowing the time required for 50 cubic 
centimeters to pass through a certain hole in a vis- 
cosimeter (various styles of which are on the market), 
and knowing the length of time required for a like 
amount of varnish to pass through the same hole, both 
liquids being at the same temperature, the viscosity 
of the varnish is easy to determine. 

For example : We have a viscosimeter with a water 
figure of 10.2, which is the time required for 50 cubic 
centimeters of distilled water to pass through the hole 
at the bottom of the cup. The same amount of varnish 
at 90 degrees requires 153 seconds to pass through the 
same hole. We therefore divide 153 by 10.2. which 
leaves an answer of 15, or which means that the var- 
nish is 15 times thicker than water, and therefore 
has a viscosity of 15. As with the specific gravity, the 
viscosity will vary with any change made in the manu- 
facture, or in materials used in the making of varnish. 



PROTECTION I N BUYING VARNISHES 285 

The flash test is used to determine the drying 
quahty of a varnish. A small iron pot is used, one and 
one-half inches in diameter and two inches deep. This 
is surrounded by a water jacket and set on le?s eight 
inches high. The cup is filled with varnish of 70 de- 
grees temperature, and the temperature is gradually 
raised by an alcohol lamp. From time to time as the 
temperature is being raised a lighted wax taper is 
brushed across the surface one-half inch above the var- 
nish. A thermometer in the varnish will indicate when 
the varnish has reached the point where it will flash, 
that is, when the fumes will catch fire as the lighted 
taper is passed over the top. Then the temperature 
should be noted, which should be in the neighborhood 
of 98 degrees. This is the flash point, and any higher 
or lower flash point indicates that a slower drying oil 
has been used or the varnish contains some drier. 

The results of these three tests do not necessarily 
indicate poor varnish, but they enable the purchaser to 
keep records and determine whether the new varnish 
oflfered him is better for the money than the quality 
he has been using. 



USE OF THE 
FLASH TEST 



CHAPTER LIV 

SOME TROUBLES WITH VARNISH 

BLOTCHING— This is sometimes called "pinholes," 
"pocking" or "pitting," and generally results 
from reducing the varnish with turpentine or 
some other poor thinner which is not thoroughly mixed common fault 
with the varnish. It may also result from coating over ^^ varnish 
an oily or damp surface. 

Sinking or Deadening — This generally follows the 
use of insufficient foundation coats ; or it may happen 
when one coat is applied before the undercoat is thor- 
oughly dry, so that the top coating is absorbed while 
drying. 

Chipping or Flaking — This is often caused by 
using brittle varnish for first coats or by using varnish 
of varying elasticity. 

Chilling — Naturally this occurs only in cold 
weather. Long or extreme exposure to cold often 
causes varnish to "speck." 

Cracking — Brittle varnishes crack under severe 
changes of temperature. Cracking occurs also when a 
finishing coat is applied over heavy undercoats that 
have not thoroughly dried, or when a brittle coat has 
been applied over an elastic one. 

Checking or Crumbling — Exposure to coal gas or things to 
ammonia fumes will cause this trouble as will also avoid in 
washing with hot water or alkaline soap. varnishes 

Crawling — This may be caused by using too heavy 
coats, or by finishing before first coats are dry, or by 
the quick changes in the weather while drying. 

Blooming — This is most likely to happen with a 
quick drying varnish which does not carry oil enough 
to resist the action of moisture or of various fumes 
and gases, or with a varnish in which the oil and gum 
are imnerfectly amalgamated. 

Brittleness — If a varnish "nails" white it shows 
the presence of poor material such as rosin, with too 



288 



problp:ms of the finishing room 



MORE FAULTS 
THAT ARE 
COMMON 



REFINISHING 
PATCHY WORK 



little oil and too much drier; such varnish is hard to 
apply and does not wear well. 

Sweating — A varnish coat is likely to sweat when- 
ever rubbing is attempted before varnish is sufficiently 
dry. 

Brush Marks — This trouble results from working 
the varnish too long or from the use- of a brush too 
small. 

Drying and PIardening — For varnish to dry and 
harden properly requires light, ventilation and mod- 
erate temperature. Very hot weather, very cold 
weather and humidity all interfere with drying. Best 
results are gotten in dry atmosphere and a temperature 
ranging from 65 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit. 

If the above suggestions are carefully looked into, 
many difficulties can be overcome. By all means see 
that the cans are well corked ; that the stock is kept in 
even temperature ; avoid extreme changes. Varnish 
changes with age, and especially does it do this when 
it is exposed to atmospheric conditions. 

Drying from Bottom Up — Drying from the bottom 
up, or drying from the top, means the difference be- 
tween the surface drying of boiled oil and the more 
uniform drying of raw oil containing driers, as in 
paint. Taken literally, the statement is incorrect, be- 
cause oxidation or drying must occur at the surface of 
the paint or varnish, and not at the bottom ; but the 
term "drying from the bottom up" indicates, as stated, 
a certain process that is different from the usual dry- 
ing of paint or varnish or plain linseed oil that is a 
strong drier or has driers added to it. 

In refinishing a piece of varnish work that is patchy 
it is first necessary to get at the actual trouble. It may 
be caused from imperfectly prepared groundwork, an 
admixture of raw linseed oil to varnish, or incompe- 
tent brush work. First smooth down Avith pumice 
stone and water ; prepare with a mixture of equal parts 
varnish and turpentine, and revarnish. Lay on a good 
full coat of varnish freely and quickly, working this 
again once or twice all over without recharging* the 
brush, thus taking off again some of the varnish, oc- 
casionally rubbing this out on another part of the work. 



CHAPTER LV 

VARNISH TERMS IN FINISHING ROOM 

RUBBING Varnish — A varnish that is hard, 
brittle, one that when subjected to rubbing with 
pumice or rotten stone will yield a high glass- 
like polish. It must not soften with heat, generated 
by friction, nor be affected by either oil or water in 
the rubbing process. 

Polishing Varnish — Having the same practical 
points as rubbing varnish but usually capable of giving 
a higher polish. 

Dipping Varnish — As the name implies, a varnish 
that will dry quickly, giving a polished surface, avoid- 
ing the labor of applying by hand; they are usually 
much thinner than other varnishes. 

Flowing Varnish — A varnish that will produce 
a smooth shiny surface without any after-treatment. 
A varnish of this kind must spread readily and evenly, 
and when dry will be devoid of any brush marks. 

Flat Varnish — A varnish that, as the name im- 
plies, will dry flat or with a matte surface. 

Piano Varnish — A high grade varnish that will 
produce a high polish; an exceptionally hard surface, 
that will withstand polishing. 

Shellac Varnishes — By the term "shellac" is im- 
plied an alcoholic solution of gum shellac. This may 
be either grain alcohol, wood alcohol, or denatured 
alcohol. Usually three to three and half pounds of 
gum are cut in a gallon of alcohol. Ofttimes called 
Liquid Fillers, because they form an impervious coat 
between the wood and the varnish. Dry quickly, enter 
the pores, and sand readily. 

Damar Varnish — So named from the gum, usually 
cut in turpentine, and sometimes in spirits. It is 
recommended in certain places where extreme pale- 
ness and transparency is desired. Ofttimes used on 
dainty articles and subjected to French polishing. 



SHOP TERMS 
FOR VARNISH 



OTHER NAMES 
FOR VARNISH 



290 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

Finishing Coat — As the name implies, it is the 
last coat of varnish used in the finishing of work. It 
may be the first coat, on top of a shellac coat; it may- 
be the third coat on furniture, and the final coat on 
pianos, usually selected for its qualifications as to the 
style of finish desired. 

Baking Varnish — One that is used where drying 
ovens are employed. One that is made by the manu- 
facturer to dry in unnatural heat usually containing 
more oil, having advantage of being more durable, 
owing to the fact that the drying process to which it 
is subjected produces a more uniform film. 

Spraying Varnish — Does not differ materially 
from regular stock varnishes, with the exception that 
as a rule, they are thinner, and obtain their name from 
the fact that they are applied with spraying apparatus. 

Long and Short Oil Varnish — These terms as 
used by the finishers apply to the proportion of oil 
and gum. One is exemplified by the rubbing varnishes, 
and the other by spar varnishes; one drying much 
slower and having more elasticity, and the other dry- 
ing harder and permitting of rubbing to a high polish. 



LITTLE 
INFORMATION 



CHAPTER LVI 

SHELLAC AND ITS HISTORY* 

IN VIEW of the size of the shellac industry and the 
steady growth in the use of shellac products of 
every description, it is surprising that there exists 
so much ignorance and misunderstanding about this on shellac 
almost indispensable finishing material. This, no available 
doubt, is due in great part to the fact that very little 
reliable information regarding shellac is to be found 
in even the best and most detailed books of reference. 

There are many purposes for which shellac is en- 
tirely unsuited and where it never should be used. But 
for certain definite and specific purposes, shellac has 
no equal. The fact that it is an animal gum differenti- 
ates it from all other varnish gums — all of which are 
of vegetable origin and gives it the unique qualities and 
characteristics it possesses. For years, persistent at- 
tempts have been made to find a substitute that could 
be produced more cheaply, but nothing "just as good" 
has ever been invented. Cheap, so-called substitutes 
abound, but of course, they give results inferior to shel- 
lac or else they would have entirely replaced shellac 
long ago. 

Where the time limit comes into play, there is noth- 
ing that can compete with shellac. It is prized more- 
over because of its varnishing properties. It can be 
highly polished when dry and because it is translucent 
and in the case of the white variety, transparent, al- 
lows the grain of the wood to show through clearly. 

It is not so many years ago that almost all of the 
shellac varnish made in this country was adulterated 
with rosin or other cheaper gums in order to reduce 
the cost. The use of these adulterated shellacs caused 
all sorts of trouble which never would have occurred 



♦Adapted from shellac literature issued by William Zinsser & Company, 
New York and Chicago. 



292 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



BEWARE OF 

ADULTERATED 

SHELLAC 



SHELLAC 

PRICES 

VARL\BLE 



if pure shellac had been used — but, unfortunately, the 
shellac, and not the adulteration, was blamed. Even 
to this day, there are still some who are prejudiced 
against shellac for this very reason. 

Today, however, shellac of guaranteed weight and 
purity can be bought from all reputable shellac con- 
cerns provided the purchaser is willing to pay for it. 
Unfortunately, there still exist many who believe that 
shellac is shellac irrespective of where it comes from 
and who place their orders according to prices rather 
than quality. Adulterated shellac will dry slower and 
less hard ; it will crack and chip off and will gum when 
sanded. It is safe to say that shellac is not thoroughly 
understood by many of its regular users. Some idea 
of the size of the shellac industry, which runs into mil- 
lions of dollars per year, is shown by the fact that the 
quantity of shellac gum used annually amounts to 42,- 
000,000 pounds, which is an average crop in India. 

India holds virtually a world monopoly on shellac 
production as nowhere else, outside of Siam, has cul- 
tivation of shellac held out the faintest promise. The 
industry is handicapped by unscientific methods and 
surrounded by local prejudice and tradition so that the 
production varies considerably — some years only 30 
per cent to 50 per cent of a normal crop being reported. 

This industry has passed through many phases and 
experienced many whims of fate and accordingly shel- 
lac has been subject to serious fluctuation in price. 
For a period of ten years or more, it may not vary 
more than a cent or two a year, then again, a change 
of a dollar a pound may be recorded in a few months, 
owing to natural and economic conditions. Shellac or 
lac cultivation is largely in the hands of village labor- 
ers of little education and scanty means and they neg- 
lect the crop when prices are low and are tempted when 
prices advance to strip their trees of brood lac on 
which future production necessarily depends. Advanc- 
ing prices also tend to induce adulteration of the raw 
product, but the commercial associations dealing in 



SHELLAC AND ITS HISTORY 293 

shellac in the United States and England especially 
have adopted adulteration tests. These tests have 
done much to keep adulterated or dirty shellac gum 
out of the United States where the New York market 
works on a virtually clean basis technically, accepting 
no shellac gum at full value which does not meet the 
required test. 

Shellac is one of the most important products used 
in the arts and industries of the world today. It comes india 
mainly from India. Many have the opinion that it is furnishes 
the gum of a tree, but instead, it is the hardened ex- ^^^'^^^'^ 
cretion of an insect about l-40th of an inch in length, 
which swarms in great numbers on certain trees in 
India, commonly known as "lac trees" ; hence the name 
shell-lac or shellac. 

The shellac-producing insect is known scientifically 
as the Tachardia Lacca. Its complete cycle of life is 
less than one year and from birth to death, it concerns 
itself only with eating, propagating and making shel- 
lac. Thousands of years ago, the ancient natives of 
India used its excretion as a substance and color in 
making their ornaments and clothing, which excretion 
later became an article of commerce as the dye which 
for years ran the Cochineal bug dye a close race and 
would today, no doubt, be widely used except for the 
advent of synthetic or chemical dyes. This excretion 
forms what is known commercially as shellac gum and 
is an organic resin produced incidentally through op long 
chemical processes taking place in the life of an insect, usage 
Therefore, because of its solubility, it stands out in 
world commerce in contrast to the vegetable resins. 
It has qualities possessed by no other gum. It is sol- 
uble in alcohol or an alkali-water solution, but is not 
soluble in turpentine. 

There are records showing that shellac, as long 
ago as 1590, was dissolved and used as a coating or 
crude varnish, and from that date uses for which it is 
now so universally put have been developed until to- 
day, it is the "open sesame" to all phases of the paint- 



USES OF 
SHELLAC 



291 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

ing and decorating art, the friend of the sculptor, elec- 
trician and metal worker, the companion of the wood 
worker, furniture finisher and decorator, the facile 
aide of the foundry pattern makers, the base of but- 
tons, phonographs, talking machine records, telephone 
switchboards and mouthpieces, imitation ivory prod- 
ucts, billiard balls and poker chips, the principal stif- 
fening in hats, an element in sealing wax, light drying 
inks, shoe dressings and wood cements, the "snap" in 
playing cards and the artful finisher for leather, imita- 
tion leather, hardwood floors, pencils, broom and brush 
handles, autos, pianos, and what not. It is used as a 
cement or adhesive between certain metals or com- 
positions. Manufacturers of brushes use it as a ce- 
ment to make the bristles adhere to their base and as 
a seal on documents and letters, it has no equal. 

For filling knotholes or blemishes in wood, marble 
or other similar materials shellac has no competitor. 
Consequently wood cements or shellac sticks are today 
made in all colors and shades and are used in large 
quantities in the piano, furniture and woodworking 
and marble finishing trades. 

It is impossible to briefly summarize the uses to 
which shellac is put. Its distinction as one of the 
utilitarian products of the world of commerce is not 
likely to change, for it has no known, satisfactory sub- 
stitute. Chemists have spent years looking for a sub- 
stitute and yet today, they have only arrived at make- 
shifts and do not pretend to have all the important 
shellac qualities. The composition of shellac or con- 
stitutent parts are only partly known. 

The so-called lac trees of India and Siam provide 
practically the world's output of shellac. These in- 
clude about sixty varieties from evergreen to fig trees. 
As above mentioned, about 42,000,000 pounds a year 
in the raw or gum state, is the average output. Cal- 
cutta is the port from which the world's supply is 
shipped. In its raw condition, it is always referred to 
as a gum. There are essentially two crops a year, al- 



SHELLAC AND ITS HISTORY 295 

though these come so as to be divided into four sea- 
sons as follows: 

The Baisaiki crop of April, 25,000,000 pounds. 

The Jetowa crop of August, 1,300,000 pounds. 

The Rungeen crop of October, 3,600,000 pounds. 

The Koosmi crop of December, 11,500,000 pounds. 

In its general classification, which in its gum or 
raw manufactured state, shellac is of two grades, 
namely: Orange shellac and garnet shellac. Button two crops 
lac is sometimes given as a third, but it is really a ^ '^^^^ 
grade of orange shellac. Of orange shellac, the fol- 
lowing are among the recognized names indicating 
their value and quality— WZ 1 to WZ 4, D. C, VSO, 
Diamond I, Double Triangle G, Superior, Superfine, 
Fine, Good and TN (Truly Native). All but the last 
five classifications are called standard marks and are 
used by manufacturers. The others are merely de- 
scriptive and in the order named range from light 
orange to less light qualities down to TN, the lowest 
and darkest grade above garnet lac. 

Nearly 50 per cent of all the shellac gum is known 
as TN (Truly Native). It contains more residue and 
dirt than WZ grades, including Superfine, and is used 
where color is not a factor and cheapness is required. 
VSO and DC are grades above the WZ 4 Superfine 
grade. There are other grades but these are among 
the more widely used. Garnet lac is shellac gum either 
pure or adulterated, from which the dye has not been grading of 
removed. Button lac is ordinary shellac gum usually shellac 
from medium to good grade, melted into buttonshape 
rather than flakes. "Kala" is a name given to the 
dirtiest of garnet lac, and the refuse from other grades. 
"Keerie" is a very cheap refuse shellac salvaged from 
the cloth sacks in which ordinary shellace is melted. 
It is seldom more than 50 per cent lac. 

The use of shellac dates back to Sanskrit, being 
recorded among the oldest products of the ancient 
Hindus. But, after the shellac had served its purpose 
as the compound for ornaments and the color for trin- 



296 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



BLEACHING 
PROCESS 



BONE-DRY 
SHELLAC 



kets and later as a commercial dye product, it was dis- 
covered that when dissolved in a solvent, like alcohol, 
it made an excellent varnish and today there is hardly 
an industry which has not felt its good offices. There 
was but one serious objection to this and that was 
the orange brownish tint. It was realized that if it 
could be made colorless, or given other colors, it would 
greatly increase its value and it was then that a method 
was discovered of bleaching shellac ; meaning to change 
the color without affecting the quality. 

The bleaching process is a difficult and complicated 
one, but in laymen's language it may be described as 
follows: The first step in this bleaching process is to 
take a hot water solution of borax or soda in which the 
orange shellac gum is dissolved. While it is in this 
liquid state, chlorine gas or a similar bleaching prod- 
uct is introduced until the color has been bleached 
from orange to white. By means of an acid, the shel- 
lac is then precipitated out of the solution. Then be- 
gins the slow and laborious process of drying it; that 
is, the process was slow and laborious until recent 
years when one manufacturer applied a system of 
vacuum drying to shellac. Of the two methods now in 
use of drying this precipitate, the old-fashioned one, 
produces what is known as "bone-dry shellac." This 
antiquated method consists of taking the still wet shel- 
lac, removing the acid and placing the resulting shel- 
lac gum in flat trays, setting them in tiers on racks in 
a warm or steam-heated room. By exposure to air and 
the heat of the room, the trays of shellac are dried in 
from five to fourteen days, depending upon the condi- 
tion of the weather. At present, there is only one 
concern using the vacuum drying method which is 
"foolproof" and uniform, and which has taken the 
bleaching of shellac out of the "rule of thumb" method. 
"Vac-Dry" is the registered name of this modern 
bone-dry shellac. Eventually this system probably 
will be adopted by others. 

Contrary to. popular misapprehension, shellac does 



SHELLAC AND ITS HISTORY 297 

not lose its strength of shellac quality by being 
bleached, when the bleaching is properly done. For 
best results, however, it should be put into solution 
relatively soon after being bleached. 

Hank shellac is also a bleached shellac, which, in- 
stead of being ground and dried, is pulled into "hanks" 
or twisted. White shellac, in this form, contains about 
20 per cent of moisture and is sold with this under- 
standing. It is used in those industries where shellac hank 
is dissolved in a water solution and the presence of shellac 
so small an amount of water does no harm. Hank 
shellac is cheaper than dried white shellac because the 
labor and cost of the drying process are eliminated. 

Another variety of white shellac gum is made in 
both the bone-dry and the hank form and is called 
"refined white shellac." This variety is made from a 
better than TN grade of orange shellac gum and, as 
the name implies, it is refined and filtered, the wax 
which is in shellac gum being removed. Although in 
the gum form it is very similar in appearance to ordi- 
nary white shellac, when dissolved in alcohol a big dif- 
ference is noticeable. A transluscent and almost clear 
solution is obtained. French varnishes and lacquers 
of finest quality are made from the refined white shel- 
lac gum, although, in order to get an absolutely clear shellac 
solution, it is necessary to filter it through paper, for french 
Refined shellac gum is one of the important component varnishes 
parts of the finest guncotton lacquers, and is widely 
used for this purpose. 

Our story of shellac would not be complete without 
a brief account of the process in the life of the lac-bug, 
which is responsible for the world's supply of shellac 
gum. During certain seasons of the year, these tiny, 
red insects swarm in a great numbers on twigs of the 
several types of trees in India and Siam. They crawl 
or are carried by the wind, birds and insects to the 
trees which at times take on a red or pinkish color, due 
to the dense mass of the visitors. 

These insects, when thoroughly settled on the 



298 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 




1. Lac tree twig showing how swarm of lac 
bugs attach themselves. 

2. Young lac insect magnified about 28 times. 

3. Female lac insect 4 weeks old, magnified 
about 21 times. 

4. Dead female cell showing young lac in- 
sects emerging from the shell about twice 
enlarged. 

5. Wingless male lac insect, magnified about 
six times. 

(i. Winged male, magnified about 20 times. 

7. Male cell 13 weeks old, magnified 7 times. 

8. Female lac insect 13 weeks old, magnified 
about IVo times. 



SHELLAC AND ITS HISTORY 



299 



branches or twigs, bury their beak or stinger-like 
proboscis through the bark and into the meat of the 
tree. Many die, however, while reaching a new swarm- 
ing place or are too weak to penetrate the bark of the 
tree and hence starve. Then again, many are washed 
away by heavy rains or killed by severe weather. 
However, millions survive, and once settled or fixed, 
they begin sucking the sap of the tree up through their 
body and literally feeding themselves to death — at the source of 
same time proceeding with an interesting process of supply 
propogation. Each female produces about 1,000 new 
insects, and gives her life as the toll. 

The sap sucked up in this process undergoes a 
chemical transformation in passing through the body 
and is eventually exuded, forming a hard shell-like 
covering of the entire swarm upon contact with the 
air. 

This covering in time takes the form of a composite 
crust for the twigs and insects. It is this chemical 
process, taking place at this time, which causes no end 
of anxiety throughout the world, for market quota- 
tions which may be seriously affected should natural 
or weather conditions cause any serious change in the 
composition of this crust. Some 
shellac crops are partial or whole 
failures due to the predatory in- 
roads of certain insects and 
parasites, to heavy rains or hail, 
to hot dusty winds or to indo- 
lence of the Hindu shellac 
growers. Frost has little or no 
effect, but monkeys do much mis- 
chievous damage. 

About five per cent of the in- 
sects amassed on the trees are 
of the male sex, which strangely 
to say, are of two kinds, winged 
and wingless, according to 
whether they are of the February (wingless) or July 




SOME CROPS 
ARE FAILURES 



CLOSE-UP OF SWARM 
OF TACHARDI LACCA. 



300 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



FEMALE 

PRODUCES 

SHELLAC 



(winged) generations. Nature, no doubt, provided 
wings for the July brood to facilitate his valuable pres- 
ence in a new swarm. 

The female always wingless, is m reality the shel- 
lac producer. While she is exuding the substance from 
which shellac is made, she is preparing herself to die 
after producing a fluid in which her eggs are matured 
and which produces during the next six months the 
future supply of lac bugs. The young go almost im- 




HINDU SHELLAC HARVESTER CUTTING DOWN 
LAC-BEARING BRANCHES. 



INSECTS 
SOON DIE 



mediately in swarms to another tree to repeat the 
propogations and chemical transformations and to 
make the next season's supply of shellac. The males, 
after having fertilized the horde of females, begin also 
the "feast of death" and contribute relatively little 
more to the shellac crop for the year — though without 
him the shellac industry would soon languish. 

As the shell-like covering forms over the insects on 
each tree, they gradually become inactive. In the sixth 
or seventh month after swarming the young begin to 



SHELLAC AND ITS HISTORY 301 

break through the apparently lifeless mass and swarm 
to new fields — the male and female parents having 
died in the meantime. It takes but a short time for 
the young to get about and attach themselves to other 
trees, although their first movements are sluggish and 
slow. 

The natives begin the harvest of this shellac-like 
crust, known as "stick-lac," from the old swarming 
place a short time after the young are born and have harvesting 
swarmed to another tree. Only one crop is taken from stick-lac 
a single tree in a year, although young are hatched 
twice a year. The natives gather millions of these in- 
crusted twigs and assemble them to be taken to a fac- 
tory where the incrustations are removed. Sometimes 
they take wooden mallets into the orchard or forest 
and break the incrustations off at the start, quite as 
ice would be broken from around a tree branch or a 
water pipe. The latter method produces what is known 
as "grain-Lac." This, in either case is the first step in 
the harvest of the raw shellac gum. While, as a rule, 
shellac trees grow in groves or forests, many of the 
trees growing along the roadside in India also produce 
shellac. 

In assembling the stick-lac or grain-lac at the fac- 
tory, it is usually placed between two great stones, not 
unlike the grain grinding stones used by the Ameri- 
can Indians. Between these stones the lac is ground, lac is 
usually by women, sufficiently to remove the remains ground 
of the parent bugs, sticks and other dirt. This crudely between 
ground lac is then sifted and separated into three ^"^^^^^ 
classes, the most important of which is the "seed-lac," 
which is retained for commercial purposes. The sec- 
ond class, containing fragments of branches and other 
dirt, is often collected and used for fuel, while the third 
product, consisting mainly of very small fragments of 
lac and dirt, known as "khud," becomes a commercial 
product and is sold to trinket and toy makers. 

In preparing the seed-lac for the market, it is 
washed and soaked for about twenty-four hours to rid 



302 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



it of the coloring matter or dye. It is again put 
through a grinder. The resiliency or bending quality 
is one of the most valuable of the several physical 
characteristics of pure shellac and every effort is made 
to maintain it. This is why the United States Shellac 
Association has made a regulation which successfully 
keeps out of this country shellac which has more than 
a small minimum of adulterant. 




NATIVE STRETCHING COOLED MOLTEN MASS 
SHELLAC INTO THIN SHEETS PRIOR TO 
BREAKING IT INTO FLAKES. 



HEATED AFTER 
GRINDING 



After being ground, the seed-lac is placed in large 
cloth bags, about twelve feet long and tM^o or three 
inches in diameter. These bags are then heated be- 
fore an open fire slowly and steadily while the natives 
twist them to wring out the melted lac. 

This melted lac then drips to the floor on tiles or 
wet plantain leaves and is caught up while still warm 



SHELLAO AND ITS HISTORY 303 

and in a partly molten mass, by a native who stretches 
it into thin sheets. To do this, he places one corner 
between his teeth, two other corners under either foot 
and then with a hand on either side stretches the mass 
until it becomes a very thin, parchment-like sheet 
thereafter easily broken up into flakes. When in this 
form, it is shipped in gunny sacks containing about 
164 pounds (two maunds) each. 

While stretching, all dirty and too darkly colored 
portions are broken off and remelted. 

It would appear that the world production of shel- production 
lac would depend on the vagaries of the lac insect, but depends on 
while this is partly true, it is only part of the story, insects 

The cultivation of lac is one of the main resources 
of India, the shellac industry having become so vital. 
The Indian government has a conservator of forests 
who is in charge of the lac trees and who is constantly 
at work preserving the supply of shellac and extermi- 
nating the insects and parasites which prey upon the 
lac bugs. 

Some few cents a day (about twelve cents on an 
average) for some years were the wages earned by the 
natives of India in the shellac factories. The cost of 
producing raw shellac, however, is much more today before the 
than ever before, due largely to new economic condi- war 
tions in India, which were caused by the war. 

While, as a rule, the lac bugs remain constant in 
the community where they are once established, the 
shellac growers see to it that the district is not de- 
nuded at each successive harvest, but cutting lac-bear- 
ing branches from healthy well-filled trees about a 
fortnight before the young are due to emerge. Later, 
these cut branches are hung in bamboo baskets or in 
other crude native receptacles in other trees, thus 
bringing new trees into bearing or perhaps mixing 
new "shellac blood" into the district, crossing the breed 
as in any other plant or animal breeding process. Care 
is taken during this time to eliminate any branches 
containing any predaceous caterpillars and other ene- 



304 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



CARE MUST 
BE USED 



DEMAND 
INCREASING 



mies of the lac bug. Before being aerated into the 
new trees, the branches are cut into twigs of eight to 
eleven inches in length. Usually these brood twigs are 
not hung in the tree until about a fortnight after being 
cut or until the first few tiny red insects are seen to be 
crawling over the sticks. It is at this time that they 
are planted in the new trees which have been properly 
prunned to receive them. Almost immediately upon 
being hatched, the insects fasten themselves to the 
news trees and begin their gum-bearing and reproduc- 
tion process. 

If a tree is too heavily innoculated, it will die, and 
therefore, one of the arts of lac growing is to inoculate 
the tree just enough. 

When dissolved in alcohol and made into a varnish, 
shellac gums have applications too numerous and well 
known to require mention 

Shellac gum is soluble either in alcohol or with the 
use of an alkali in boiling water. When dissolved in 
alcohol, it is called shellac varnish or "cut shellac." 
When an alkali is used, the term "water solution" is 
usually adopted, and it is for this use that white shel- 
lac hanks find a market. 

The demand for shellac among painters, decorators 
and finishers is increasing yearly in spite of the in- 
creased cost over turpentine varnishes made from 
other gums, and today they use a large part of the 
available supply of shellac. The furniture manufac- 
turing world also uses large quantities. A good shel- 
lac varnish, when thinned down and used as a primer, 
is much more permanent than a cheap varnish of mix- 
ing or ceiling variety. A good point to remember is 
that when so-called turpentine varnishes dry quickly, 
it indicates the presence of benzine or resin, while in 
the case of the shellac varnishes, the quicker they dry, 
the purer shellac they are likely to be. 

There is one characteristic of shellac which needs 
explanation after which we may say that we have cov- 
ered the essentials of interest to shellac users. That 



SHELLAC A ND ITS HISTORY 305 

is the tendency of shellac to become "matted" or 
"blocked" while in transit during the spring and sum- 
mer months from India. It is shipped from there be- 
tween May and November, which means shellac arriv- 
ing in the United States between July and January, 
has to pass through intense tropical weather en route. 
The heat causes the shellac flakes to stick together, 
sometimes only slightly so that they can be "freed" by 
hand, when the shellac is said to be "matted," and at 
other times so much so, that the shellac becomes like 
stone and has to be broken up and ground. It is then 
spoken of as being "blocked." When shellac arrives in 
flaky condition, it is said to be "free." The quality of 
"freed" or "ground" shellac is just as good as flake 
shellac, but its appearance is not as attractive, of 
course. 

DETERMINATION OF ROSIN IN GUJl SHELLAC 
AND SHELLAC VARNISHES 

Sample — Should be at one pound per bag or case testing of 
for gum shellac and one pint per barrel for varnishes, shellac 

Method (Wijs-Langmuir) — Weigh out .200 grams 
of ground (20 mesh) shellac, after thorough mixing, 
into a dry 250 c.c. glass-stoppered bottle. Add 20 c.c. 
(pipette) C. P. acetic acid 99 per cent; warm very 
gently on the hot water bath, until completely dis- 
solved. Add 10 c.c. pure chloroform. Add 20 c.c. 
(calibrated pipette) Wijs solution iodine monochloride. 
Immerse the bottle in warm water kept between 21-23 wijs-lang- 
degrees C. for exactly one hour. Add 10 c.c. potassium 
iodide solution, 10 per cent. Immediately titrate with 
sodium thiosulphate solution. This is made by dis- 
solving 24.83 grams of sodium thiosulphate, C. P., in 
one liter of water, and determining its strength with 
pure copper or idodine. After running in about 25 c.c. 
of the thiosulphate solution, a few drops of fresh starch 
solution are added, which turns the shellac solution 
dark. Thiosulphate solution is added gradually, until 
the blue color due to starch is discharsred. (Shake the 



MUIR METHOD 



306 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



TO DETERMINE 
PERCENTAGE 
OF ROSIN 



bottle occasionally.) Run a blank exactly as above 
without the shellac. The c.c. of thiosulphate required 
by the sample, is subtracted from the c.c. required by 
the blank. This gives the c.c. absorbed by the shellac, 
divide by .200 grams to give c.c. absorbed by one gram. 
Multiply this by the iodine value of the thiosulphate 
solution, which will give the iodine value of the sample. 

To obtain the percentage of rosin : 
Y — percentage of rosin 
M — iodine value of shellac (pure) 
N — iodine value of rosin 
A — iodine value of mixture (sample) 
Then Y equals 

100 (A-M) 



(N-M) 

In the official method 18. is taken as the iodine value 
of shellac and 228. as the iodine value of rosin. 

To determine the percentage of rosin in a shellac 
varnish, the varnish is evaporated down on the water 
bath until dry and .200 grams of the residue taken and 
treated as above. 



DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE IN GUM SHELLAC 

A representative sample must be taken and quickly 
ground to about 10-20 mesh. Weigh out about 5 grams 
into a flat bottomed dish 3-4 inches in diameter. The 
shellac should be spread out in as thin a layer as possi- 
ble. Dry in a well ventilated air-bath at 38-43 degrees 
C. until constant weight (about 5 hours). Transfer to 
a dessicator and when cool, weigh. 



CHAPTER LVII 

FINISHING WITH SHELLAC 

WHEN one stops to consider that more and 
more shellac is used in this country years, not- 
withstanding the fact that no real efforts have 
ever been made to popularize or advertise it and that 
its use is increasing in the face of continued opposition 
from oil varnish manufacturers, v^e realize that shellac 
now occupies a definite place and has some advantages 
over all competing finishes. 

It is definitely conceded by the best finishers that beauty of 
if the time could be expended on it, there is no finish french 
that has the durability, velvety surface and the beauti- polish 
ful grain effects of French polishing work, built up by 
coat after coat of very thin shellac. 

To produce a French polish, first see that your sur- 
face is thoroughly and evenly sanded. If stained, be 
sure that water stain only is used and let it dry before 
you start with shellac. If the surface is veneered, see 
that the glue moisture has also been driven out by kiln 
drying, if possible. Then take shellac which has been 
thinned down to a water consistency ; make a soft ball 
or pad of stocking material and apply the shellac in 
light, straight-line strokes with the pad. As soon as 
the surface is dry, apply another coat in the same 
manner. The term coat is really a misnomer as the 
shellac is so thin one would hardly believe in watching 
this work built up that the finisher were more than 
lightly sponging the surface with alcohol. 

Should there be hair line cracks, sprinkle very directions for 
lightly here and there some very fine pumice. Then applying 
on the next coat, you will fill up these lines, using your french 
pad and rubbing this fine pumice combined with the ^^^^^^ 
shellac into them. In building up a fair sheen or gloss, 
be careful not to cover so heavily as to hide the "feel" 
of the grain. Then after your surface is again thor- 



308 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



MUCH 

RUBBING 

NECESSARY 



SOFT FINISHES 
HERE TO STAY 



oughly dry, you can begin rubbing lightly in a rotary 
motion with your pad, on which a few drops of linseed 
oil has been poured. Be sure to cover all your area or 
you will find yourself polishing only one spot, usually 
the middle. After rubbing for sometime and using 
additional drops of oil, you will notice a high polish 
coming up. Then gently rub this until it is fairly dry. 
Let it stand over night and rub with oil again the next 
day. This process will produce a mirror-like finish 
which is impossible to obtain in any other way and 
one more durable and permanently indestructible than 
any finish known. It was to imitate and hasten this 
process that rubbing and polishing turpentine var- 
nishes were introduced. 

The term "French polish" is often confused with a 
so-called French polish that can be bought in a bottle. 
There are several "wonder mixtures" selling under this 
name but they are dangerous to finishes, and try to 
accomplish in a few moments what it takes careful fin- 
ishers in Europe days to do. 

Shellac is fast becoming more popular in this coun- 
try. It was side-tracked for a time because we de- 
manded quantity production here and required rapid 
results. This caused gloss finishes to become popular- 
ized. Today soft waxy wood finishes are desired just 
as flat effects in paint have superceded gloss paint for 
interior use. For this soft finish effect, even in quan- 
tity production, the use of shellac stands pre-eminent. 

Several heads of furniture houses, known as quality 
leaders in their line, are of the firm belief that soft 
shellac finishes like flat paints are here to stay, because 
with shellac, the new look of furniture can be done 
away with and at the same time, with a minimum 
amount of effort, you can produce what will look like 
the old-fashioned furniture which the public has been 
educated to prefer over the shiny new finishes of the 
more recent years. 

Here some of the reasons are summarized as to why 
shellac finishes are coming in and why they are as im- 



FINISHING WITH SHELLAC 309 

portant and advantageous to the manufacturer as to 
the consumer. 

1 — Shellac is as durable a finish as is known and 
its use obtains much quicker results — thus increasing 
production. 

2 — A shellac finish is easier to pack. Paper will 
not stick to it if proper drying care has been given. 
A thin coat of hard prepared wax or beeswax would, 
of course, eliminate even rare cases. 

3 — If damage is done to the finish, it is easily re- 
stored. 

4 — It is an economical finish. shellac is 

5 — A shellac finish permits a better blending and economical 
shading. Richer effects are obtained by using the ap- 
propriate color of shellac (white or orange) than with 
stain. Shellacs are clear natural stains and bring out 
the grain. Of course, there are times when a stain 
must be used to obtain a pronounced finish. Never 
use oil stains as they set like paint. Use water or 
natural acid stains. 

6 — A simple finish of water stain followed by a 
few very thin coats of shellac and a coat of wax has 
much less liklihood to turn gray or white than a finish 
built up on successive coats of both shellac and var- 
nish because the latter finish is an air tight seal. 
Moisture "hydrolyzes" (or fogs) the finish. Once the 
finish has turned underneath, a tedious refinishing 
problem -is presented. 

7 — The finish gets nearer to the antique beautiful 
finishes of the past — the pride of every furniture col- 
lection. . , 

Laboratory experience has convinced me that it is 
the maltreatment of shellac in its usage which is re- 
sponsible for the difficulties which may arise. 

Little has ever been written about shellac in an at- 
tempt to analyze some of its failures. Therefore, some 
of the following suggestions may be of distinct use- 
fulness. 



310 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



USED AS 
FIRST COATER 



FIRST COAT 
SHOULD BE 
THIN 



Shellac is a universal first coater. During the great 
war when prices of shellacs were high, hundreds of 
resinous substitutes were introduced and cheap ben- 
zine varnishes were tried. These all failed because 
you cannot get good results on top, if your undercoat 
is bad or brittle. As a first coater, nothing is more 
durable and flexible through various changes of tem- 
perature than shellac. An instance of this is its use 
as a first coater for outside work. Even enemies of 
shellac admit it has no superior to kill knots, i. e. — to 
keep the sap from coming through the paint. We have 
seen any number of outside white piazza ceilings or 
outside trim discolored with brown spots because of 
sap coming through from knot holes. A whole white 
pillar can have a muddy brown streak down it a few 
weeks after pure paint has been applied, unless shel- 
lac was used as a first coater. This is particularly true 
of green woods. We have seen white pine tar in green 
wood fairly bubble out of house shutters under rays 
of the sun, through two coats of gray lead and two 
coats of pure dark green paint, when a coat of shel- 
lac would have saved the whole situation. 

The most valuable hint we can give a finisher is to 
put his first coat of shellac on ridiculously thin and his 
next coat almost as thin. We are only trying to fill the 
pores, and we do not want to kill the grain. The fault 
is generally made in practically flowing on a heavy 
coat of shellac. This leaves the next coat nothing to 
grip to. Follow the old rule which proves good on 
every finish, "Never put a gloss on a gloss." If your 
shellac priming coats are very thin, your finishing 
coat can dig in and hold on. Remember two thin 
coats are much better than one thick one. 

Checking is always due to expansion and contrac- 
tion of the finishing coat which when attached to an 
inelastic or unbending finish like a gloss coat, has got 
to give, particularly through changes of temperature, 
and in creeping, the coat cracks or alligators. 

Pure shellac will not scratch white, mar white or 



FINISHING WITH SHELLAC 311 

crack under the hammer. It has wonderful plastic and 
elastic properties. 

Steel wool is claimed by many far superior to fine 
sandpaper for rubbing between coats. Do not touch steel wool 
up missed places ; you must avoid this to keep the sur- good for 
face smooth, as touching back simply seals up the first rubbing 
coat in spots before it has had a real chance to dry. ^^"^^ 

Shellac, if kept for a long time, should be stored 
preferably in wood or glass. The most up-to-date 
packages for general use is a special composition can 
which has an interior lining of a certain process lead. 
Never should shellac be allowed to remain in barrels 
or small packages uncorked. Alcohol is very volatile; 
the shellac will thicken up and once the alcohol has 
evaporated, the gum residue is worthless and for all 
intents and purposes insoluble. It is a popular fallacy 
to think that shellac which is dried out has only to be dried 
thinned again with alcohol and that this dry residue shellac is 
is the same as the original shellac gum. Shellac stored worthless 
in glass should be kept away from the sunlight as this 
has a tendency to darken it. Shellac has an affinity 
for water. Therefore, on hot muggy days when the 
humidity is particularly high, its use is better post- 
poned unless its application can be immediately fol- 
lowed by artificial heat in a special drying room. 

Never thin shellac with anything but alcohol and 
in doing this, stir the mixture slowly. Neither the 
addition of acetone, Venice turpentine, wood alcohol, 
benzole or any other solvent will help in the least. 
Always buy the best formula of completely denatured 
alcohol you can; today (1922) Formula No. 5 is the 
best for shellac. 

Since the advent of protiibition, completely dena- 
tured alcohols have been slightly weakened in strength, 
but the best formulas are plenty good enough when 
they are used to thin good shellacs made out of spe- 
cially 190 degree proof, formula No. 1 denatured alco- 
hol. Wood alcohol used in conjunction with shellac has 
practically disappeared except in rare cases. This is a 



312 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



FORMULA NO. 
DENATURED 
ALCOHOL IS 
BEST 



USE A 

RUBBER-SET 

BRUSH 



good thing for finishing rooms because it is the most 
poisonous and also from the cost standpoint, there is 
a saving, as wood alcohol is more expensive. 

Pure grain alcohol, which was prohibitive in price 
even before prohibition, is now entirely out of the 
question. Formula No. 1 (190 proof) specially dena- 
tured alcohol mentioned above is a government formula 
and is composed of 100 gallons grain alcohol to which 
five gallons of wood alcohol have been added. From 
this, you see that it is a wonderful alcohol and for all 
intents and purposes practically a pure grain alcohol. 
As a matter of fact, this alcohol is so close to the pure 
grain that manufacturers of shellac using it are under 
very heavy bond not to sell a drop which has not been 
mixed with at least two pounds of shellac to the gallon 
of alcohol. Always insist on shellac made from 190 
degree proof material. It will pay you to do this and 
then you can forget all about other solvents. 

A rubber-set brush is best for use with shellac. A 
glue set brush comes second in adaptability. Always 
brush in one direction and work fairly fast. For shel- 
lacing large surfaces such as floors, a flat wall brush, 
rubber bound, of black Chinese, bristles, is the best. 
For finer work a soft hair brush, rubber bound, of 
either camel or bear hair variety, is even more adapt- 
able than a bristle brush. 

A general complaint about the use of white shellac 
is that occasionally (and sometimes not for months 
after a piece of furniture has been shipped) the finish 
turns gray or white ; this is sometimes called "bloom- 
ing." It has been found that such complaints are in- 
variably traced to furniture finished in our humid 
summer weather or to climatic changes where furni- 
ture finished in the north has been shipped to the 
south. We have seen mahogany furniture and store 
fixtures which were moved into a new concrete sky- 
scraper in New York, which furniture was beautiful 
when installed but soon turned white. Concrete and 
other buildings built in the summer never dry out until 



FINISHING WITH SHELLAC 313 

mid-winter, after steam heat has driven out all the 
moisture. In all new buildings where windows are 
shut down tightly after office hours, condensation sets 
in and when the offices are opened in the morning, you 
will find water running down the inside of the window 
panes. Naturally, you cannot blame shellac or any 
other finish for turning white under such moist con- 
ditions, and we only mention this instance as an actual 
example. 

No one ever stops to consider, it seems, that there 
are different climatic and temperature conditions sur- 
rounding the finishing rooms in the winter time, where conditions 
the temperature of steam-heated factories is kept up to important 
the accelerate drying and where the heat is dry, than 
in the same factory in our hot summer weather with 
all the windows open, the thermometer registering the 
same degree of heat as in the winter, but a heat that is 
terribly moist. Shellac, as said before, has an affinity 
for moisture and will, on damp days, draw it out of 
the air. You will get the white effect as you work, and 
if the first coat is not clear when you apply the second, 
you bury the white coat, keeping the moisture in the 
wood only to sweat out at a later date. Recognizing 
this fundamental fact, modern furniture factories 
screen off portions of their floor with heavy duck or 
build a drying room where steam heat is kept going 
even in the summer time. These rooms are not much 
hotter than any other portion of the floor, but the heat 
in them is dry. As soon as an article is dipped, drying room 
brushed or sprayed, it is put into this drying room, necessary 
When thoroughly dry, the second coat is put on, then 
back into the drying room again and so on. If you 
comply with this main principle of drying, and follow 
this process through, remembering also these addi- 
tional points, the whole white or gray discoloration 
complaint should be entirely eliminated. 

Be sure that you use kiln dried wood. If a veneered 
finish is to be obtained, see that both the veneer and 
the wood under it is kiln dried. 



314 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



RUB SHELLAC 
WITH OIL 



CURE FOR 

WHITE 

FINISH 



If possible, have all glue moisture driven out of 
veneered surface by kiln heat before shellacing is 
done. 

Have the coat of water stain perfectly dry. Do not 
use oil stains. Never stain and shellac on the same 
day, particularly on dark woods, unless absolutely 
necessary. 

Never apply more than two coats of shellac the 
same day and keep them thin. In French polishing, 
where the shellac is used as thin as water, you can of 
course put on any number of coats providing the pre- 
ceding coat is thoroughly dry and you are not simply 
rubbing up the first coat again. 

Dry with dry artificial heat the year around. 

Never rub down shellac with water. Always use 
oil. Water can seep through a crack at the edge of a 
panel or drawer and work back under the varnish. A 
white spot on any surface is rarely due to conditions 
right under the spot itself. 

Expert furniture finishers claim (and we have seen 
it done) that if a piece of furniture has turned white, 
it is possible to eliminate it at least to some extent in 
the following way, and often the result is permanent. 
Brush your work very lightly with the highest grade 
of alcohol you can find, using a camel's hair brush. 
Medicated grain alcohol purchased at a drug store, if 
it is of guaranteed high proof, is the best alcohol that 
can be obtained these days for this work. Simply draw 
the brush over the work so that the shellac finish is 
moistened. For some inexplicable chemical reason, 
the white can be brushed out. This operation may 
have to be rubbed. Let it stand over night and rub 
with very light pumice stone, soft felt and rubbing oil. 
Be careful not to rub up the finish, which a novice is 
apt to do. Sometimes where large surfaces have 
turned milky, an electric flat-iron with slow heat will 
restore the color. Placing the work near a steam pipe 
will also restore it. The electric iron can be applied 
over a piece of tracing cloth so that it will not stick 



FINISHING WITH SHELLAC 315 

to the surface. The iron must not be pushed around 
but instead merely held in one position until enough 
heat has been brought to bear to clear up the finish. 

In the case previously cited, where office fixtures 
turned white, in a damp moist concrete building which 
was finished in the summer, it is absolutely certain 
that in the winter time when the place has dried out, 
and the steam heat is left on day and night, the finish 
will entirely clear up again. 

Of course, on very soft woods it would take too 
long and possibly be too expensive to do all your filling 
with shellac. In that case, we recommend a good paste 
filler put on sufficiently thin to fill the grain absolutely, 
using a medium amount of same and then a coat of 
shellac. Put on both the filler and the shellac so as 
not to fill in absolutely the pores for the reasons we 
have mentioned earlier in this chapter. 

In finishing hardwood floors, we recommend that finishing 
the filler be a thin coat of shellac. If the floors are floors 
very soft, a coat of paste filler should be used. For 
floor work, of course, where you want a quick durable 
finish, the first coat should be thin shellac, using about 
two pounds to the gallon, and the second coat to give 
a final finish should be about four pounds. There is no 
other more durable finish than a shellac coat, and the 
householder much prefers it to the very shiny glass- 
like floor varnishes so widely advertised. Of course, 
a shellac floor gives a much richer and softer effect, 
and a coat of wax applied on top of it softens the finish 
still further and should stand an indefinite amount of 
wear. 

Of course, in the case of the shellaced floor, it is 

' f 1 NEVER USE 

best for the householder to put a coat of wax over the shellac 
most used portions of the floor such as thresholds, en- substitute 
trances into a room, etc., every month or so. Never on floors 
use a shellac substitute on floors. It cannot stand the 
wear. It is made of rosin and of course will crack 
and mar white under the heel. Never use a shellac 
substitute as a first coater under shellac, because if 



316 



PPORLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



USE OF 

SHELLAC 

STICKS 



REPAIRING 

MADE 

EASY 



the under coat peels off, the shellac will also and the 
latter cannot be blamed. By all means for floor use, 
buy a pure shellac from a reputable house. Be sure 
the word "pure" is plainly stated on the label, and the 
formula, too, wherever possible. 

The use of "stick shellac," or, as it is more often 
called, "wood cement," is the most modern method for 
repairing blemishes, filling cracks or other injuries to 
wood. Reputable shellac houses manufacture these 
sticks in fifty or more shades — each shade being col- 
ored to match every kind of finish, such as Adam 
brown, Circassian walnut, dark mahogany, etc. Color 
cards can be furnished from which you can pick the 
nearest matching stick for your particular work. 

In buying shellac sticks, you must be sure to buy 
the best because there are several grades on the mar- 
ket which contain too much rosin, and, needless to say, 
they are not satisfactory for the same reason that a 
pure shellac is better than an adulterated one. Good 
shellac sticks will not soften under sandpaper; can be 
both rubbed and polished and will not chip or crack. 
The ideal way to apply these cements is by means of 
an electric soldering iron which can be connected to an 
ordinary light socket. When the iron becomes hot, it 
melts the shellac, and the operation is the same as a 
tinsmith when he applies his solder. If this tool is not 
at hand, a small alcohol flame will do equally as well. 
A candle, a match or an oil lamp will simply soot up 
the cement and discolor it. For pin holing, we have 
seen finishers use an ordinary flexible palette knife to 
squeeze the melted cement into small holes. 

The use of these cements has grown continuously 
and their origination has proven to be a Godsend be- 
cause woods are growing inferior from year to year 
and often a very fine piece of wood had to be thrown 
among seconds because of some small defects. Such 
close matcnes can now be made by means of these 
cements and the most remarkable work can be done in 
patching inferior wood. 



CHAPTER LVIII 

ANTIQUE WALNUT 

ANTIQUE walnut is a 1921 creation along the lines 
of the Italian Rennaisance, and, not being a 
radical departure from the generally accepted 
ideas of what a good finish should be, is meeting with 
considerable success. 

The finish is easily produced, and little time is con- success of 
sumed — a point of vital interest to the manufacturer, new finish 
The first step is to see that the wood is made perfectly 
smooth. A little extra time in sanding at the begin- 
ning will save twice that time later on in the finishing 
process. Use 000 or 0000 sandpaper, and sand the 
wood until it is like velvet. 

After sanding, clean out the pores thoroughly. It 
is not enough to wipe them off with a rag, or to use 
compressed air. Provide the finisher with a picking 
brush, and see that he uses it. This little tool will 
greatly aid in removing dust from the pores, and it 
does a clean and efficient job. Prepare your stain 
after this formula: 

Loutre R _ _ .2 oz. 

Indian Yellow H 1 oz. 

Bichromate Potash Yz oz. 

Water _. 1 gal. 

If desired, this stain can, of course, be reduced with 
water. Dissolve the powders in hot water {not boil- 
ing) and stir until they are thoroughly dissolved. Ap- directions for 
ply a coat of this stain in the usual manner, brushing 
out well. Let dry thoroughly — ^about 12 hours should 
be given. The work may appear dry in a few hours, 
but there will still be some moisture left, and it takes 
a little time to get rid of this. 

When the wood is dry, sand lightly, and spray on 
a coat of wood lacquer reduced about 40 per cent to 50 
per cent with wood lacquer thinner. Use about 30 



318 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



USE PURE 
WHITE FILLER 



FINISH WILL 
GIVE LONG 
WEAR 



pound pressure, and give as even a coat as possible, 
without piling up any of the lacquer. This v^^ill dry in 
a few hours, and the work is then ready for the filler. 
This consists of white lead, mixed to a paste with tur- 
pentine, or, better still, white lead ground in japan 
thinned with turpentine. Turpentine substitute, or 
mineral turpentine can also be used. Some finishers 
advocate the use of 70 per cent carbonate of lead, and 
30 per cent zinc, as it is a well known fact that paint 
which contains zinc will wear better and look whiter 
than if all lead were used in the making. Whatever 
material you employ, make it up to a smooth paste with 
turpentine, and then apply with rag to the stained 
wood. Rub thoroughly into the pores in the usual 
manner. Let it set a few minutes and then rub dry 
and clean with another rag. The pores may now look 
too white and glaring to the finisher, but when finished 
they will soften down and will harmonize perfectly. 

The next step is to spray on a coat of wood lacquer 
reduced about 40 per cent with the thinner. When 
this is thoroughly dry, which will take but a few hours, 
the finish should be lightly rubbed with fine sandpaper. 
It is then ready for waxing, which completes the finish. 
There are a number of good waxes on the market or 
the finisher may prepare his own after the following 
formula : 

Beeswax, pure 4 lbs. 

Turpentine 1/^ gal. 

This will produce a first class wax that will rub up 
to a beautiful polish with little effort. 

The finish is now complete, and the result will 
please the eye of the most fastidious purchaser. The 
beauty of the wood is emphasized, and not hidden by 
heavy thick coats of varnish, and, although the finish 
is thin, it will give long wear. 

The foregoing directions give the wood lacquer pro- 
cess, which is the manner under which antique walnut 
was introduced. It however is optional, and shellac, 
or similar materials may be substituted. 



IN USE 



CHAPTER LIX 

ITALIAN WALNUT 

THERE are two popular conceptions of Italian wal- 
nut finish — the greenish grey and the blackish 
grey. They are rather difficult to describe, yet 
after reading the directions, it becomes easier to pic- two shades 
ture in the mind's eye, the effect produced. 

With the final preparation of the wood down to a 
velvety satin-like surface and the pores thoroughly 
cleaned out — all the sand and dust removed by brush 
and air pressure — the stain is applied. 

To produce the greenish-grey, the following will 
act as a basis : 

Nigrosine, greenish black 1 oz. 

Warm water 1 gal. 

To produce the blackish-grey : 

Nigrosine, blue shade 2 oz. 

Warm water 1 gal. 

For uniform colored walnut, no other material is 
necessary, but where the wood presents some sap, and 
light streaks, the addition of one-fourth ounce of crys- 
tal sulphate of iron is recommended. The sap is then 
treated with a weak stain to bring it up to the depth 
of the darker wood, and when dry the entire piece 
gone over with the nigrosine solution only. When the preparation 
final coat is thoroughly dry — and to obtain complete 
chemical action it is well to let it stand over night — 
sand it with extremely fine a«,nd paper, and dust it 
thoroughly again. Then apply a coat of wood lacquer, 
thinned with about 40 per cent of wood lacquer thin- 
ner. When this has dried at least four hours, prepare 
a filler as follows : 

25% zinc white (carbonate of zinc), 

75% white lead, 

Turpentine. 



OF FILLER 



320 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



APPLICATION 
OF FILLER 



SHELLAC CAN 
BE USED 



Finishers generally, are acquainted with this style 
of filler, which is not designed to fill the pores abso- 
lutely, but rather to give them a white color, and also 
to deposit in the little tissues bits of white so as to pro- 
duce in the final finish, a grey-white effect. This white 
filler should be of the consistency of syrup, spread on 
to the wood freely, and immediately rubbed in briskly 
and cleaned oflf. The fil*st rag discarded, and the work 
wiped clean with a fresh rag. This should then be 
allowed to dry and it is quite necessary that it is abso- 
lutely dry before the final coat of wood lacquer is ap- 
plied. This coat of wood lacquer should be thinned 
with 40 per cent of wood lacquer thinner. After this 
coat is thoroughly dry, say four to six hours, sand with 
0000 sandpaper, dust and wax. 

It has been found that niany finishers are apt to let 
their wax stand too long before they polish. The writ- 
er's experience induces him to recommend that the wax 
be evenly spread upon the surface with the flat of the 
hand, rubbed about until it begins to stiffen, and then 
brought to a polish. This polishing should be con- 
tinued until an absolute gloss is produced, and suffici- 
ent friction has been maintained to produce a certain 
warmth. A finish of this kind will present a satisfac- 
tory surface and although it does not have the appear- 
ance of a sheet of glass over the wood, it has a finished 
appearance that immediately brings to the mind that 
some care has been taken in acquiring it. 

This new finish is brought out with wood lacquer, 
which must not be confounded with the popular con- 
ception of lacquer, which is a metal lacquer only. It is, 
of course, possible to use shellac and similar products 
in place of the lacquer. 



A NEW- 



CHAPTER LX 

ITALIAN OAK RENNAISANCE 

THE Italian oak Rennaisance finish is a 1921 crea- 
tion in wood lacquer and wax finish with smutted 
pores, smutted moulding trim, decorations of 
mahogany finished in natural wood. finish 

The stain is prepared by dissolving six ounces of 
Italian oak stain powder in one gallon of water. The 
stain is ready for use as soon as the powder is thor- 
oughly dissolved. The wood which has first been care- 
fully sanded is given a good coat of the above stain, 
and allowed to dry thoroughly. The oak is then filled 
with a mixture of rotten stone and turpentine to which 
a small proportion of japan dryer has been added. 
This is rubbed thoroughly into the pores of the wood, 
and cleaned off thoroughly after the filler has begun 
to set. It is understood of course that this filler is not 
designed to fill the pores of the wood so as to present 
a level surface, but merely to color them with the rot- 
ten stone so as to give a dusty appearance to the wood. 
When the filler is dry, a coat of wood lacquer is sprayed 
on, which has been reduced with wood lacquer thinner 
about 50 per cent. After drying and sanding lightly, 
another coat of wood lacquer is sprayed on which has 
been reduced about 30 per cent. 

These coats of lacquer will dry in a few hours so 
that they can be sanded and a coat of wax then applied. 
It is a good plan to add a little rotten stone to the wax, 
as this tends to give a more uniform tone to the whole 
piece, and also emphasizes the coloring of the pores. 
This completes the general finishing process. Many 
variations may be introduced in the finish by using 
a darker stain for rails, edges of tops, etc. Sometimes 
small ornamental pieces of mahogany or walnut are 
used, these being glued on to the face of the work and 



ORNAMENTS 
ARE SOME- 
TIMES USED 



GOLD MOULDING 
IS BEST 



322 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

finished in a light natural color. Mouldings are also 
very effective in connection w^ith this finish. A plain 
gold pattern is best, and should of course be stained 
with the same stain used on the piece. A heavy paste 
of rotten stone is then applied, and when dry, high- 
light, so that all the depressions are fully covered with 
rotten stone. 



CHAPTER LXI 

THINGS WORTH KNOWING ABOUT LINSEED OIL 

LINSEED oil is a drying oil; that is, an oil which 
will absorb oxygen from the atmosphere, and 
during this absorption become solidified into a 
rubber-like, water-proof film. The absorption of this source of 
oxygen produces a gain in the weight of the oil, linseed oil 

Linseed oil is pressed from the flaxseed. The flax, 
in this case, is grown especially for crushing purposes. 

To make the best oil, the flax is not cut until its 
seeds have commenced to ripen. This is the practice in 
India where labor costs only a few pennies a day. Here 
the flax is pulled and manipulated entirely by hand and 
the seed is very plump and rich in oil, because the juices 
have been enriched by the natural process^of ripening. 
The India seed produces an oil which is highly prized 
by all those who must have linseed oil, second to none ; 
especially varnish makers, who consume enormous 
quantities. This method of harvesting flaxseed cannot 
be practiced in this country nor in South America or 
Russia, where great quantities are produced, as it 
would raise the price far beyond reason. 

In America, flax is cut by machinery, exactly as is 
wheat. Now, if the farmer waited until the seed had 
started to ripen, much of it would shell out from the 
shaking of the harvesting machine and would be ^^^^ ^ 
wasted. To prevent this, the seed is cut while in the inferior oil 
"dough," as it is called, just previous to ripening. 
Although it becomes solid and ripens after cutting, it 
does not receive the juices which would have been ob- 
tained if left to ripen naturally. Indeed, much of it 
is cut so green that it produces a very inferior oil. 

Much is heard about cold-pressed oil, but with the 
powerful hydraulic presses (the most common means 
of extracting the oil) it matters little whether the flax 
has been heated slightly (is hot pressed) or not, as to 
the resulting quality. Heated seed, however, will make 
a more highly colored oil, due to disintegration of muci- 



324 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



REFINING 
THE OIL 



ADULTERANTS 
OF LINSEED 
OIL 



laginous matter. It is doubtful whether this injures 
the binding quahties of the oil, as claimed by some, as 
much of this matter settles upon standing. 

In varnish manufacture particularly, refined oil is 
necessary. Linseed oil contains some coloring matter 
which still remains after the oil has settled. Ordinary 
oil will impart a yellowish tint to certain light tones 
especially to white pigments, particularly white lead 
and zinc white. This refining is usually done by agi- 
tating it together with sulphuric acid or alkali and 
filtering. 

Boiled linseed oil is the name usually given to oil 
which has been heated to a temperature of at least 250 
degrees Fahrenheit, with or without the addition of 
drier. Boiled oil is not as elastic as raw oil and is little 
used for exterior work. For interior work, however, 
much is used as conditions are less severe. Then, too, 
tjie boiling causes the oil to dry much quicker, which 
is particularly desirable for interior work. 

The possibilities of obtaining pure boiled linseed 
oil are very slight and much of it sold under this name 
is really raw oil, to which a cheap benzine drier is 
added. This gives the oil the proper color and drying 
qualities of boiled oil. This adulteration, however, is 
detrimental to the durability of the oil. 

The most frequent adulterants are mineral oil, rosin 
oil and fish oil. If heavy mineral oil is used, the oil 
will dry extremely slow on glass and after a few days 
a greasy surface will be noticed on the oil film. If a 
lighter mineral oil is present, the oil will dry perfectly, 
but the adulterant may be detected by the use of a 
hydrometer, i. e., by determining its specific gravity. 
The specific gravity of pure raw linseed oil should be 
between 0.932-0.936, while a refined oil may often be 
0.001 lower, and a boiled oil may be considerably 
lighter. Hence, inasmuch, as the specific gravity of 
light mineral oil often runs as low as 0.725, a specific 
gravity of less than 0.931 would probably indicate the 
presence of this adulterant. 

The detection of rosin oil and fish oil is much more 
diflficult. Rosin oil may possibly be detected, if consid- 
erable is present, by rubbing a little between the palms 



THINGS WORTH KNOWING ABOUT LINSEED OIL 325 

of the hands and noting the odor, also by noting the 
rate of drying and the appearance of the oil on glass. 
Raw linseed oil should dry in from three to four days, 
while rosin oil causes the film to remain tacky for a 
long time and prevents it from hardening. 

Fish oil is very hard to identify if thoroughly 
deodorized and present in small quantities. However, 
if considerable is present, upon heating, the odor may 
be revealed, but the greatest care must be exercised 

l^^mTT OTT 

not to confound the odor with that given off by certain frequently 
raw linseed oils when heated. A careful regard for used 
the drying and appearance on glass will be helpful, for 
when fish oil is present the film will remain tacky in- 
definitely. 

Often if a heavy mineral oil or rosin oil is used, the 
oil will have a "bloom" or bluish cast, which may be 
emphasized by pouring the oil upon a black surface. 

Semi-drying oils, such as soya bean oil and corn oil 
are seldom used to adulterate on account of their own 
comparatively high cost. 

When there is any doubt at all about the delivery 
being pure, the best course is to forward a sample of it 
by express to one of the large crushers who maintain 
laboratories and a force of experts in this line. They 
are always very glad to test samples for the trade and 
make reports at a very moderate rate, or in some cases 
without charge. 

To darken wood with linseed oil, have the surface 
perfectly clean, free from finger stains and other dis- 
colorations, then apply the oil, giving as even a coat darkening 
as possible. wood with 

Do not try to rub in the coat of oil. Go quickly and ^^^^^^^ oil 
evenly over the surface of the wood, giving all atten- 
tion to applying an even coat, and avoid all lapping of 
strokes as much as possible. The wider a brush that 
can be used, the better the job, but wide brushes re- 
quire lots of muscle to drive them when applying lin- 
seed oil, especially when it is used as a first coat. 

The use of fillers is not very desirable when this 
nrocess of darkening is to be used. At least I have not 
had good results when a filler was used before the lin- 
seed oil was applied, so it has become my custom to 



32n 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



FILLER NOT 
DESIRABLE 
WHEN THUS 
DARKENING 



"bringing up" 
surface by 
sandpapering 



darken the wood first and then afterwards rub in the 
filler very sparingly. 

Sometimes it may be desirable to use two or even 
three coats of linseed oil, depending upon the kind of 
wood and degree of darkening required. It is best to 
make up small sample pieces of each kind of wood to 
be handled, giving one, two and three coats of linseed 
oil to as many samples of each kind of wood, then you 
will be in position to know exactly how many coats 
of oil will best suit the work in hand. 

After the oil has been applied, and has dried, or 
"struck in" sufl^ciently to allow the work to be handled 
without showing finger spots, place the work in a 
japanning oven and bake at least two hours at a low 
heat, then raise the temperature until, at the end of the 
third hour, the wood gives off a smell of scorching — 
the "hot-wood" smell with which we are all so familiar. 

Upon removal from the japan oven, after treat- 
ment as above, the wood will be found very dark, closely 
resembling ebony, somewhat rough on the surface but 
easily smoothed by light sandpapering or by burnishing 
with a blunt steel tool. Care should be taken in sand- 
papering to remove as little as possible from the sur- 
face, for the darkest fibers are those closest to the sur- 
face, and the more they are removed the lighter and 
more streaked the work will appear. 

Very light sandpapering, indeed, will "bring up" 
the surface. It seems that the w^ork requires more of 
a polishing, if that term can be allowed, with old or 
very fine sandpaper than a regular sandpapering. Just 
remove the fibers raised by action of the oil and the 
heat. Oil swells wood in the same manner that water 
swells it, although to a far less extent, and the surface 
fibers are sure to be slightly raised by the oiling pro- 
cess. Take off these raised fiber-points and a smooth 
surface is again obtained. 

Whatever filler is to be used should be applied be- 
fore the sandpapering is done. Sometimes it is pos- 
sible to sandpaper before the filler is thoroughly dry — 
not appreciably wet, but just green enough so the dust 
raised by the sandpaper will be caught in the damp 
filler and retained in the cavities of the wood. Some 



THINGS WORTH KNOWING ABOUT LINSEED OIL 327 

excellent effects may sometimes be obtained in that 
way, but great care is required, or the work may be 
spoiled by a muddy, streaky look, which no subsequent 
operation can remove, short of planing the entire sur- 
face and darkening it again. 

When the surface has been darkened and smoothed 
to suit, it can be finished either by varnishing, or by 
oiling without any varnish. Or, a certain proportion 
of varnish may be mixed with the oil and excellent 
results obtained. The use of oil alone gives that 
peculiar effect so much desired by the makers of Mis- 
sion styles. 



AVOIDING 
MUDDY LOOK 



CHAPTER LXII 

AIR BRUSH EQUIPMENT IN FINISHING 

MUCH has been written about the methods of air 
brush finishing, but the information, while giv- 
ing essential points, has not seemed technical 
enough on the actual merits of the equipment. The 
finishing of a manufactured article is of vital import- 
ance from the standpoint of sales. Nothing depends 
more on increasing the reputation of the manufacturer 
than the care given in finishing his product. Appear- 
ance counts for considerable from the point of view of 
sales, reputation and satisfaction. 

The air brush, while necessarily a mechanical tool, 
should be of such construction that it will be capable 
of supplying the manufacturers with these qualifica- 
tions of finish demanded of it. It must be a tool not 
only equal to the improving of finish at a big saving, 
but one which will add to the product such refinement 
in the work that it immediately becomes a very impor- 
tant factor in the shop. It must not be merely a 
sprayer. It should be an instrument of great efficiency ; 
one which responds to the slightest will of the operator 
and is under his absolute control at all times. There is 
a big difference between an air brush and a sprayer. 
The air brush represents the most complete or advanced 
stage of finishing devices. The same relative difference 
is proven daily in air brushes in regard to quality and 
efl!iciency, as any finisher knows who has used good and 
poor air brushes. Air brushes will absolutely apply 
finishes more evenly, more economically and satisfac- 
torily than the old method of hand brushing. Economy 
in finishing does not rest with the saving of time. It is 
an assured fact air brushes will save the manufacturers 
from 25 per cent to 75 per cent in labor as well, de- 
pending on the nature of the work to be finished. Com- 
pressed air costs little compared to the great saving 
in time and labor. Manufacturers, owing to the ease 
and speed of handling the finishing of their products. 



SALES DEPEND 
ON FINISH 



AIR BRUSH 
DOES BEST 
WORK 



330 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



AIR BRUSH 
ECONOMICAL 



have been able to double their output without adding 
to floor space or increasing payroll. 

Many manufacturers have been amazed at the seem- 
ingly large waste of material. Some have been misled 
by ones not specific enough. Air brush finishing actu- 
ally wastes very little material, due to the fact that the 
material, as applied with the air brush is, or should be. 
thinned five to 50 per cent, according to the nature of 
the work and various materials used. There are in- 
numerable preparations of all kinds and descriptions 
used. These must be reduced in regard to consistency. 
The thinner seldom is costly. While there is a waste, 
this volume in waste depends wholly with the equip- 
ment in use as well as the experience of the operator. 




THE AERON SYSTEM OF FINISHING 



Considering the superior finishes obtained and the 
great saving in other features, the small waste is not 
considered by manufacturers who have become thor- 
oughly posted and experts in the proper manipulation, 
and perfected their system of handling the work. Man- 
ufacturers who have used and observed the finishes pro- 
duced by air brushes all agree on one point, namely: 
That air brush finishing when completed is far superior 
to hand brush methods. Uniformitv of finish without 



AIR BRUSH EQUIPMENT IN FINISHING 



331 



MATERIALS SET 
QUICKER WITH 



tears, sags, runs or dregs along the edges is a feature 
of air brush finishing. The finishing material being 
applied by air is forced into every crevice by the simple 
sweep of the hand and the pull of a trigger removing 
the strenuous eff"orts on the operator which would tire 
him out should this same force be induced in hand 
brushing. On uneven surfaces, carvings, ornaments, 
etc., air brush finishing is particularly advantageous. 
A great many plants have a foreman of finishing who 
may be an expert, particularly in flowing on a finish. 
Should he become sick or die, it often ties up the whole air brush 
finishing department until another eflftcient or expert 
foreman is found to fill this vacancy. When air brush 
equipment is installed after a very short time, depend- 
ing with the finisher handling the air brushes, the 
operators are all experts. This is of untold advantage 
to the manufacturer. Most materials will set twice as 
quick when applied by the brush, particularly in case 
of shellacs, enamels and varnish. 

Manufacturers should be sure to help the finishers 
to obtain the best results by co-operating in installinof 
proper equipment. The oil and water separators should 
be installed near the finishing booths. This removes 
all moisture and grease or dirty oil which may work 
into the air lines from air compressor and endanger 
the finish or ruin it. 

Better finishes are obtained by heating all materials 
as well as the air with proper heating system. This is 
essential in spraying varnishes and shellacs. Too much 
cannot be said of its value as used in connection with 
air brush finishing. In reality it is one of the many heated 
important parts of a high grade finishing equipment. 
The absence of a good heating system has caused many 
a manufacturer no end of trouble and great losses at 
various times. The virtue of heating, not only the 
material but air as well, was not known and appreci- 
ated until a short time ago. Since the fact became 
known, the result has been better finishes and thou- 
sands of dollars have been saved. 

Fusel oil when used sparingly, particularly in spray- 
ing of enamels and heavy paints, is found very satis- 
factory in air brush coating. The under coating can 



finishes 
should be 



332 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



TWO WELL 
KNOV/N AIR 
BRUSH 
METHODS 



be done with ease with much better results than can be 
obtained by the harder method of air brush work. The 
air brush ordinarily saves two coats out of five required 
by hand brush methods and very frequently gives the 
same or better results in two or three coats that manu- 
facturers have been giving the same product, using 
five or six coats by hand process work. 

Air brush finishing does not rest with the manufac- 
turers of high grade furniture or wood products but 




CONTAINER SrANO 



RAPID METHOD OF APPLYING VARNISH 



TWO STYLES 
OF AERONS 



is also being used with remarkable success by manu- 
facturers of metal goods who have found a bigger sav- 
ing with the same special advantages as furniture, 
piano manufacturers for filling, coating, enameling, 
lacquering, bronzing and all around finishing. 

There are two equipments for finishing along the 
lines just indicated : The Paasche or air brush method 
described in the foregoing paragraph, and the Aeron, 
or the spraying method. 

There are two styles of Aerons, one with the at- 
tached fluid cup, and the other without the cup, receiv- 
ing the fluid from a container placed overhead. Of 



AIR BRUSH EQUIPMENT IN FINISHING 333 

these two styles there are several sizes and different 
types to meet every requirement. Then there is the air 
compressor and the air receiver, and also the air trans- 
former set, together with air duster, for regulating the 
air pressure and purifying the air, and for cleaning 
the parts to be finished. 

There is also the electric air heater which is at- 
tached to the Aeron at the last possible point of con- 
tact, and which supplies the only practical way of heat- 
ing the air and keeping it heated until it reaches the 
work, and of raising the temperature of the material. 

To complete the equipment there is the fireproof, 
indestructible steel fumexer in which the aeroning or 
spraying is done. The back of the fumexer is funnel- 
shaped clear to the floor. This scientifically correct 
style of back together with the large fan opening and 
arrangement and the short exhaust pipe combine to in- 
sure the height of exhausting efficiency. The fumexer 
is made in a variety of sizes, ranging from three feet 
to 16 feet in width, with the proper number of fans 
installed in each size. A turn-table, which is also sup- 
plied, greatly facilitates the handling of the work. 
The autocool electric exhaust fan installed in the fu- 
mexer has a protected and automatically cooled motor ; 
it can be swung inward for cleaning ; each fan is a self- 
contained unit and can be adapted to any kind of work ; 
ft requires no belts, nor millwright work, and takes up 
no valuable floor space; it has a one-twelfth horse- 
power motor and can be attached to any electric light 
socket, using one-tenth to one-twentieth the current to 
do the same work as other style fans. The autocool 
fan is made in one size only, the number of fan units 
being increased to two or more for f umexers above five 
feet in width. The big advantage of the fan arrange- 
ment is that a better distribution of exhaust is secured, 
and the vapor is quickly moved at low pressure. 

In using the Aeron system, for which the air pres- 
sure required varies from 30 to 80 pounds, it is not 
necessary to finish separately different parts of any 
particular job, allowing time for one part to set up 
before coating another, in order to obtain a full bodied 
application. All surfaces that are to be finished can 



SPRAYING 
DONE IN A 
FUMEXER 



ALL PARTS 
CAN BE 

COATED IN ONE 
OPERATION 



334 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



HEAVIER 
COAT THAN 
WITH BRUSH 



be coated in one operation, and it is also quite possible 
to put on a heavier coat than with the brush without 
the danger of sags or runs. This is of particular ad- 
vantage in the application of coach varnish, where a 
full body and high gloss must be obtained with as few 
coats as possible. 



u. s. p. 



CHAPTER LXIII 

EXPLAINING A STANDARD 

IN AN explanation of the following term, "U. S. P.", 
let it be said that these letters stand for the words 
United States Pharmacopoeia. This work is a 
standard, adopted by the United States government ^^t""!^^ ^^ 
which has a commission that meets every 10 years, 
and standardizes medical and chemical compounds as 
well as* chemicals themselves. Thus when a formula 
is given in New York City and filled in San Francisco, 
it will be made up of the same standardized material. 
Not only is this true of our country, but the foreign 
countries, in fact almost all the countries comprising 
the Postal Union, have adopted the same standard. 

It has been mentioned in this book that materials 
of universal standard and materials subject to as little 
physical change as possible should be employed. For 
example, the reference to the solution chloride of iron, 
or the solution sulphate of iron. This material, as well 
as many others, is governed by the U. S. P., and there- 
fore, the purchasing of materials under this standard 
will obviate a great many pitfalls in the making of 
stains, according to the formulas given. 



CHAPTER LXIV ' 

MODERN WOOD LACQUER 

PROGRESS in the wood finishing world makes 
necessary that the line of demarkation of the 
word "lacquer" as used and applied to wood fin- meaning of 
ishing processes be set forth distinctly and clearly, for term 
at this writing — 1922 — we still confound the Japanese "wood 
and Chinese lacquering process or lacquer finish with lacquer" 
those of the present day. Again, we may think of 
lacquer as a cotton solution which we understand to be 
intended for use on metal, but which the wood finisher 
occasionally applies to his art, especially on furniture. 
But now we come to the present day product, broadly 
termed "wood lacquer," the definition of which might 
well be, "A scientifically prepared mixture of transpar- 
ent solids and solvents, the former consisting of py- 
roxylin and gums dissolved in the latter which are a 
mixture of quick drying solvents so selected that the 
product will dry evenly, and smoothly, leaving a firm, 
homogeneous flexible, waterproof, non-crystalline, cel- 
luloid-like film to protect the surface." 

It will readily be seen that the Chinese and Japa- 
nese methods no longer prevail — at least in modern 
countries. We have had an occasional attempt at the 
reproduction of these oriental lacquer finishes, but they 
were invariably modernized and bordered closely on 
French polishing. 

The metal lacquers undoubtedly have been elimi- 
nated from wood finishing. They have been sup- lacquers 
planted by the present day wood lacquers which are eliminated 
the latest scientific achievements in the line of wood 
finishes and can readily be differentiated from the ordi- 
nary lacquers by the fact that they only can be safely 
spread over the present day wood fillers. Thus, when 
lacquers are offered that do not have this achievement 



338 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



INCREASING 
USE OF 
LACQUER 



VARIOUS GUMS 
ADDED 



it clearly shows the misconception by the seller of the 
new term "wood lacquer." 

This peculiar qualification of the modern article, 
thus makes possible complete finishes on top of stain 
and filler coats. Metal lacquers on the contrary have 
very little body and as a rule attack the filler, acting 
very much like a varnish remover in this respect. 

Lacquers are coming more and more into use in the 
finish of high grade furniture, and it is evident the 
demand will increase rather than decrease in the years 
to come. 

The preparation of their solvents calls for high 
skill and care. Lacquer solvents are prepared water 
white and free from both water and acid. Those solv- 
ents that are free from acid when made and become 
acid with age, must be avoided, as their presence spells 
trouble. They produce discoloration of the metal. 
Long experience alone tells what solvents to use to- 
gether and in what proportions. A single solvent can- 
not be used, for dip work requires one rate of evapora- 
tion, while spray work requires another. 

The base solvent of lacquer is nitrated cotton, made 
by soaking clean cotton in mixtures of nitric and sul- 
phuric acids at various temperatures and lengths of 
time. As cotton fibre is hollow and very absorbent, it 
is a diflficult and lengthy job to wash thousands of 
pounds of it after nitration, making it free from acid. 
If acid is left in the cotton, the latter will decompose, 
and if the cotton is made up into lacquer before that 
operation, the lacquer will naturally be defective. 

In the production of heavy-coated, high gloss lac- 
quers, various gums are added, some to cause hardness, 
some for gloss, and some for adhesion, each in proper 
proportion, and each with the necessary amount of the 
proper solvent. If the use of heavy coats of gum 
lacquers is adopted, they should be dried with con- 
siderable heat to produce the right hardness. The gloss 
will then be greater. 

Green and brown stains on brass and bronze wares 



MODERN WOOD LACQUER 339 

are often apparent. They are usually caused by acid 
conditions of the lacquer, brought about in many ways 
— usually by unclean work. Lacquer work must be 
chemically clean. Metal in the lacquer will corrode, stains 
Lacquer thinner is a good cleaner and removes quickly caused 
any buffing dirt and leaves it in the lacquer. Brass ^^ unclean 
work that has much soft soldering and is acid dipped 
will cause trouble. For that and all similar troubles, 
use the lacquer in as small dip tanks as possible, and 
at the end of a day pour back the lacquer unused, after 
filtering through cheese cloth. 

For silver work only glass tanks and stone jars 
should be used as containers, except for common work, 
when tin cans soldered with tin may be used. Lacquer 
should not be kept in lead, copper or zinc cans. Poor 
work with lacquer, which is often charged to poor ma- 
terial, is usually traced to keeping' it in an improper 
container. 

In medium priced work, there is often trouble with 
the lacquer turning white in drying. With fusel oil 
now so high priced, it is evident lacquer cannot be 
Imade at a cost less than the price of the oil unless a 
lower priced solvent is used with amyl acetate. Lower 
priced solvents are rapid-evaporating. Turning white 
takes place only in very damp weather, when it is so 
warm that the windows of the work room are thrown 
open. The work is chilled which causes the lacquer to 
turn white. It will not take place if the work is done 
in a dry atmosphere. 

"Pink silver" is caused in various ways. Grease 
left from buffing will produce it; if the work in hand 
has not been thoroughly cleaned of red buffing mate- 
rial, the work is sure to be pink after lacquering. Some 
hollow ware with a fair plate on the outside, but no 
special attention paid to the inside, will often show all cause of 
right on the former and a rich pink color on the latter, ^^^^ silver 
some time after lacquering. 

The preparation of wood, as to staining and filling 
for coating with lacquer, is the same as that for var- 



340 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



PREPARING THE 
WOOD FOR 
LACQUER 



LACQUER 
SHOULD BE 
THINNED 



nish. Water stains are preferred, although other 
stains such as oil and spirit stains can be used. The 
standard filler of linseed oil, japan, turpentine, silex 
and desired coloring matter gives satisfactory results 
when applied properly. The formation of craters is 
the result of improper application of the filler. Insuf- 
ficient drying of filler will permit the lacquer to work 
in and lift the filler resulting also in pits in the work 
Lacquer should be thinned with lacquer thinner, 
the amount depending upon the work in hand. Larger 
quantities of thinner will be necessary to work mate- 
rial into deep grooves, etc. The lacquer when thinned 
should flow on in such a manner as not to produce runs 
or a pebbly surface; the former is due to too much 
thinner and the latter to insufficient thinner. Best 
working pressure is 50 pounds with the flow cut to one- 
half instead of full flow. Upon spraying, operator 
should keep work at a distance of eight to ten inches. 
This will permit of an even and wet flow of lacquer on 
the work, thus preventing an over loss of solvent by 
evaporation and pebbly work at a greater distance or 
production of waves in the coating with the force of 
material against the work at close range. The method 
of procedure in spraying objects will be determined 
largely by the nature of the object. If massive, such 
as a desk, the top should be sprayed applying the lac- 
jquer at the point nearest the operator and working 
outward or away from the operator. This will prevent 
pebbly work or the accumulation of dust on the work 
as the force of the spray will always be away from the 
freshly coated surface. The spray should be worked 
steadily across the object from left to right and then 
right to left, making sure that the motion is reversed 
beyond the edge of the object sprayed, to prevent ex- 
cessive coating along the edges. There is a great ten- 
dency on the part of those inexperienced in the use of 
a spray to build a thick coating along the edge because 
the spray is not carried clear of the object before re- 
turning to the adjacent uncoated section. Upon coat- 



MODERN WOOD LACQUER 341 

ing objects which present small surfaces, the operator 
can use his own judgment. Unlike varnishes, or oil 
enamels, a freshly coated lacquer surface can be re- 
worked if need be without danger of runs or waves. 
Two hours drying should be permitted between coats 
in a slightly humid atmosphere and summer heat. This 
time between coats will insure a hasty final drying of two hours 
the lacquer. Three to four coats of lacquer should give between 
a good heavy coating with plenty of depth when rubbed ^o^'^s 
to a polish. For a wax finish one coat of lacquer is 
sufficient. 

No rubbing or sanding is necessary between coats 
and only light sanding after final coat to knock off dust ■ 
or high spots. For smoothing the surface coarse pum- 
ice and water or oil can be used followed by very fine 
pumice or ground rotten stone and oil or water to work 
up a high gloss. The work should be allowed to dry 
three days before rubbing. 

Although not having the same building properties 
as varnish, the desired finish can be obtained with lac- lacquer 
quer at a saving of time — even with the extra coats of sets rapidly 
lacquer necessary. After the bulk of solvent is evapo- 
rated — which requires but a short time — the lacquer 
coating is set hard enough for the next coat. 

Owing to the immediate drying of the successive 
light coats, lacquer will show very little shrinkage. 
That is to say, a lacquer finished object put on the 
market as perfect will remain so after years of aging 
as lacquer does not undergo a change due to oxidation 
as in the case of varnish, which after a period — de- 
pending upon the type of varnish — will show shrink- 
age and a crystaline film. 

A lacquer film will not chalk or crystallize readily 
w^hen abraded or when the film is dented in with a 
blunt instrument. The resin present in varnish and 
lacquers is the cause for chalking. When the oil in a 
varnish film is completely oxidized the film will chalk. 
In a lacquer film the nitrocotton, which serves the same 
purpose as the oil in a varnish, is ever present, so that 



342 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



RESIN PROVIDES 
SOLIDS TO 
LACQUER 



LACQUER 

FILM RESISTS 
HEAT 



ZAPONITE 



the danger of chalking will depend upon the proportion 
of cotton to resin. The nature of the resin has a bear- 
ing on the chalking as well. The resin necessarily must 
have the proper degree of hardness. If too soft, it will 
cause the film to gum up when rubbed, and if too hard 
cause brittleness and chalking. The resin provides the 
bulk of the solids and gives to the film adhesive quali- 
ties and permanent gloss when rubbed. The cotton is 
meant to give flexibility, so as to offset chalking. Cotton 
has no adhesive qualities and cannot be rubbed to a 
lustre. Hence, to get proper adhesion, minimum shrink- 
age, good rubbing qualities the use of cotton is limited 
and resin must be employed. 

As regards water resisting qualities, a lacquer film 
compares favorably with outdoor spar varnish. A pane, 
to which three coats of lacquer had been applied did not 
show a greater passage of moisture through the film by 
complete immersion in water over a period of ten days 
than a similar test with spar varnish. 

Lacquer films show great resistance to heat. A film 
rubbed vigorously to a heat unbearable to the touch 
will show no signs of gumming up. In this connection 
it might be stated that upon at least two days' drying 
after the final coat of lacquer, the film is sutticiently 
hard so as to not to paper mark. 

Much credit for the achievements in the production 
of wood lacquer is due the laboratories of the Celluloid 
Zapon Company of New York, who market a pioneer 
product as Zaponite, the name being taken from the 
German "Zaponieren," which means broadly the ap- 
plying of a pyroxyllin finish. 

The second product, "Zaponite A," produces a com- 
plete finish — it is a much heavier i3odied product. 
After the work has been prepared in the usual manner, 
i. e., stained or stained and filled, apply a thin coat of 
shellac, sand and dust if necessary, then spray with a 
fifty-fifty (half thinner and half Zaponite A) wood 
lacquer), applying two or three coats, producing any 
kind of surface desired. For mat finish 000 steel wool 
will be found expedient, saving labor and time, with 
Vv'onderful mat resUlt. 



CHAPTER LXV 

CHINESE AND JAPANESE LACQUERS 

THERE is a great variety of work in lacquer in 
China and Japan, with almost as many qualities 
as there are varieties. China and Japan both 
claim priority in the art of lacquering. Japan has lacquering 
brought the art to its highest development in every evolved on 
way, although some samples of Foochow lacquer equals ^**^ orient 
that of Japan for commercial shipments. 

The exact process of preparing lacquer not only 
differs as between China and Japan, but differs in the 
nature of each piece of work, the article made, the color 
and quality. In general, the basis of all lacquering is 
a varnish obtained from the resinous juice of the rhus 
veniicifora or "uruso-no-ki," ''urushi" or "varnish 
tree" cultivated in many parts of China and Japan for 
the purpose. This tree in many respects resembles an 
ash. It grows to a height of from 15 to 18 feet, and 
can be tapped after several years. The varnish is ob- 
tained by making incisions in the bark of the tree, near 
its base, before daylight during the months of July and 
August and catching the sap which exudes as a mixed 
clear and milky product. 

This sap is placed in tubs or similar vessels which 
are set in the sun to evaporate all moisture. It sepa- manufacture 
rates into a clear almost colorless resinous liquid which of Chinese 
rises to the top and into a thicker, more resinous and ^^cquer 
darker liquid mass which settles to the bottom. The 
qualities are then separated by decanting, the top rep- 
resenting the finer grades and the bottom the lowest 
grades used for ordinary paints, "Ningpo varnish" and 
similar ordinary work. This liquid, in its various qual- 
ities is the basis of all lacquering, and variations in 
treatment begin with the various way and degrees of 
refining of the liquid. The liquid is separate:! into 
grades by minute degrees for fine work. 



344 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



CHINESE 
LACQUER 
POISONOUS 



APPLYING 
ORIENTAL 
FINISH 



It is colored various shades in various ways. For 
example, in China, black is obtained by stirring the 
liquid in the air until it thickens somewhat and then 
mixing with it a stain obtained by mixing gall-nuts and 
iron. Other shades involve the use of ox blood, sul- 
phate of iron, vermilion, tea oil and other substances. 
In China the liquid is thinned for use by the addition 
of vernicia montana, Camellia cleifera, sulphate of iron, 
rice and vinegar, and sometimes wood oil. The use of 
each of these substances represents some especial need, 
difference in quality or condition or especial object in 
view, and is not altogether a matter of convenience at 
the time. The lacquer is poisonous until dry. 

Usually the wood to be lacquered is soft, dry pine. 
The surface and corners are made absolutely smooth; 
joints are stopped by oakum, paper pulp or strips of 
grass cloth. Paper is pasted over rough joints to make 
all smooth for the varnish. Emery powder is then used 
for a coat on the piece, although vermilion or gamboge 
are sometimes used. After drying, the whole is ground 
down by pumice stone, powdered sandstone or pow- 
dered deer horn. The same preparation is again ap- 
plied and ground down again. Then the lacquer is 
evenly applied with a broad soft brush, in a room free 
from breezes and dust, and with a minimum of light, 
in fact a dark, damp room is the best lacquer finishing 
room. After the varnish dries, the piece is ground 
down and polished. The same process is then repeated, 
the minimum number of coats being three, while often 
as many as sixteen are applied. 

For solid colors, this alternate varnishing and pol- 
ishing constitutes the finish. Various decorations are 
applied in different ways. In mother of pearl inlay 
work, for example, the mother of pearl is cut in the 
desired figures in thin shell, and the pieces are placed 
in position on the undried surface soon after the appli- 
cation of one of the early coats of varnish and are then 
varnished over, polished as the rest of the surface, re- 
varnished, and so on, becoming imbedded in the enamel 



CHINESE AND JAPANESE LACQUERS 345 

and polished and repolished as a part of it. Lacquer is 
mixed with various substances and raised figures are 
made and applied to the surface in the same way and 
are ground and revarnished in this manner for relief 
work. The process is the same, with varied manner of 
work, for articles of the most intricate design. In gen- 
eral, the diff'erence in qualities of lacquer work, there- 
fore, depends first, upon the high refinement of the lac- 
quer and the manner of its early treatment, which, in requirements 
the old processes often represented the work of many for good work 
men for an incredible time, most of which finer pro- 
cesses are impossible in countries without labor of ex- 
traordinary cheapness and skill; and secondly, on the 
care and skill with which the articles lacquered are pre- 
pared, and the care and skill with which the lacquer 
is applied and decorations are made. 



POPULARITY OF 
POLYCHROME 



CHAPTER LXVI 

POLYCHROME FINISHES 

POLYCHROME has become one of the most 
popular finishes upon the market, and this is de- 
servedly so because of its real beauty. From 
time to time, we have received numerous requests for 
facts concerning the production of polychrome. The finishes 
diversity of these requests plainly shows that manu- 
facturers in all lines are desirous of adapting this 
popular finish to their own productions. The requests 
also show that comparatively few finishers are ac- 
quainted with the practical methods of polychrome fin- 
ishing. It will, therefore, be our endeavor to submit 
to the reader a few of the practical methods and pro- 
cesses that are being successfully employed today by a 
good share of the world's largest producers of poly- 
chrome. 

Turning to nature : in the fall one may find a vision 
of polychrome spread upon the rising hills, where the 
magic hands of the frost king have painted innumer- 
able soft and lovely colors upon the leaves. Contem- 
plating such a picture from a little distance one sees 
only a blending of shades. There are no harsh colors 
to be seen, and such is the ideal that the finisher pro- 
ducing polychrome must strive for. Harsh, bright 
colors have no place in polychrome. Soft, subdued col- 
ors must be employed — those that naturally blend with 
one another. 

The methods of carrying out this finish are as diver- 
sified as the colors employed. We are doubtful whether ^^ ^^^^^ 
there are two houses that use the same method.- We ^"^^^^^^^ 

EMPLOYED 

also doubt whether any house succeeded in turning out 
two pieces of polychrome that are exactly alike ; there- 
fore, the finisher must realize in the beginning that 
we can give him in this chapter merely the basic in- 



348 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



SURFACE 
MUST BE 
ORNAMENTED 



formation, or skeleton, as it were. He will have to 
adapt this to his own requirements, or, in other words, 
build up the rest of the body to suit himself. He will, 
however, be enabled to proceed with a reasonable de- 
gree of intelligence, and after a little practice, will be 
able to turn out a first-class job. 

Before proceeding further, the finisher must bear 
in mind the fact that it is impossible to polychrome a 
plain piece of wood, that is, one that has a perfectly 
plain surface. The furniture or other work must be 
ornamented with turnings and carvings in order to 
properly present this finish, as this gives an oppor- 
tunity for design and dusty background. The fluted 
columns of the ancients with their many elaborate 
carvings were often painted in various colors, which 
the centuries of storms and sunshine have dimmed 
until they are visible to us today only through what 
appears to be a dusty film. Such is the origin of poly- 
chrome, and it is from the past that our designers have 
conceived this finish as we know it today. 

It will be seen, therefore, that any piece which 
abounds in turnings, carvings or flutings is ideal for 
this work. 

Roughly speaking, polychrome may be produced in 
three ways : First, the stippled finish ; second, using a 
colored enamel over the entire piece, and third, stain- 
ing the piece much as in the production of the ordinary 
finish. The first of these methods is distinct from the 
other two in the preparation of the wood. This method, 
as its name implies, gives a stippled finish, and is very 
suitable for small pieces, such as table lamps, book 
ends, candlesticks, etc. The second method is suitable 
for small pieces, and also for those of moderate dimen- 
sions. The third method is suitable for the largest 
pieces. Of course, no hard and fast rule can be laid 
down as to which method should be employed for any 
article of furniture. Ofttimes the three methods will 
be employed in the finishing of a single piece. 



POLYCHROME FINISHES 



349 




350 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



THREE 

METHODS 

SUGGESTED 



FIRST 
METHOD 



For example, let us take a table. The top would bo 
finished by the third method, with a stippled border 
around the top, which would employ the first, and tho 
second method might be used for finishing the legs. 
Then, too, a lamp base might be finished by the second 
method with stippled sections around the base or other 
portions. We will now present to our readers the dif- 
ferent steps in their order for each of the three meth- 
ods as outlined above. 

Method Number One — The work is first given a 
coating of wood lacquer or shellac, which is reduced 
with a suitable solvent so as to form merely a wash 
coat. A coat of a special stippling material which is 
now upon the market, is then applied. This coat must 
be plastic and will require very little thinning with 
turpentine. Before this stippling material dries, it is 
stippled. This may be done in a number of ways, but 
is usually accomplished by means of a stiff-haired 
brush. The brush is held at right angles to the work, 
and the operator then taps it gently over the stipple, 
thus drawing it up into fine points, and it is then al- 
lowed to dry in this form. Twenty-four hours is 
usually sufficient for drying under ordinary conditions. 
If the stipple is thick enough, it will draw up into long 
thin points. If these are not desired, a thinner mix- 
ture will allow the points to flatten out. We now have 
a rough surface on top of which any desired color may 
be applied. For example, let us take a candlestick, 
with turnings at the top, a fluted column, and a carved 
base. A coat of redwood lacquer enamel (or any other 
color) is next applied, and when this is dry, a thin 
coating of pale gold bronze should be sprayed on. 
Wood lacquer is by far the best material to use for 
this purpose. The lacquer should be reduced with a 
special lacquer thinner, 50 per cent, and then from 
one to one and one-half ounces of pale lemon yellow, 
bronze lining powder stirred into each pint of it. A 
deeper color, such as roman gold, may also be used, oi 
course, if that is the eff'ect desired. This mixture is 



POLYCHROME FINISHES 351 

then lightly sprayed on the work. The carvings on 

the base, and the flutings on the column, should be 

polychromed in harmonizing colors, or, in other words, 

a design in appropriate colors is painted upon the 

work. When this is dry, respray very lightly with a 

thin solution of bronze powder. Now prepare a very 

thick paste of turpentine and rotten stone, and smear 

this over the entire piece. Wipe this off before it dries, 

using a soft cloth. You will readily see that this rot- smutting 

ten stone will cling in every little pore or crevice, when the work 

the turpentine has evaporated will give the work that 

old dusty look as though it had withstood the elements 

for centuries. 

Method Number Two — In this method the work is 
first coated with a colored wood lacquer enamel. Wnile 
ordinary artist's oil colors may be employed, we can- 
not recommend too strongly the use of color wood lac- 
quer enamel. The wood lacquer enamels not only wear 
very much better than the oil paints, but they also have 
the advantage of being water-proof, and they dry in 
a very much shorter period of time. While oil colors 
will require about 24 hours to dry, lacquer enamels are 
dry in a few hours. This point alone makes the em- 
ployment of lacquer enamels very desirable, as any 
manufacturer will readily appreciate. To return to 
our method, the piece is first coated with a colored 
enamel. If the same color is desired to predominate 
over the whole piece, the work will then be given a 
first coater of only one color. If on a large piece, dif- s^*^^^^ 
ferent colors are desired to predominate on different 
parts, any desired colors of course may be employed. 
For example, a lamp standard might be given a coat 
of red lacquer enamel on top, green on the column and 
blue on the base. After this is dry, the work is then 
sprayed with a thin coating of pale bronze, as in 
method No. 1. The design is now to be painted upon 
the stand, and right here is the stumbling block of 
many a finisher endeavoring to produce polychrome. 
While it does not take an artist by any means to accom- 



352 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



NEVER USE 
BRIGHT COLORS 



AGITATOR 
MUST BE 
USED 



plish satisfactory results, yet the finisher must have a 
little artistic ability in the application of his design. 
As stated in the beginning of this article, bright col- 
ors must never be employed. Faded, washed-out col- 
ors are the rule, and may be obtained by suitable mix- 
ing, thin solutions, and light application. When the 
design is thoroughly dry, another coating of the light 
bronze powder is applied. In this case, however, the 
air pressure should be reduced, and the brush held 
quite a way from the work so that a very light coating 
is applied. Next comes the coating of turpentine and 
rotten stone, which is smeared over the entire piece 
and then wiped off as before. In applying the design, 
ordinary artist's camel hair brushes can be used. It 
is perhaps unnecessary to state that in using the liquid 
bronze in the spray gun, some sort of an agitator 
should be used, as the bronze powder will settle to the 
bottom of the container. Most air brushes are built 
with this device. If it is not used, the cup containing 
the bronze liquid must be thoroughly stirred up at 
intervals. It is also well to point out at this time that, 
when we speak of fine bronze powders, we mean "lin- 
ing powders," such as are used for the very highest 
grade of work, such as lining or striping automobile 
bodies, etc. These lining powders are extremely fine 
and impalpable, and are not to be confused with the 
ordinary coarse bronze powders generally found upon 
the market. Lining powders being very fine, will stay 
in solution for two or three hours, while a coarse pow- 
der will begin to settle almost immediately. 

Method Number Three — This method, as indi- 
cated above, is usually more or less a combination of 
the other two. The entire piece is first stained in the 
usual manner. A wash coat of wood lacquer is then 
applied, reduced from 60 to 75 per cent, with special 
wood lacquer thinner. This is then sprayed on the 
wood, and when dry, the wood should be lightly sanded. 
A thin coating of zinc or white lead is then applied. 
This may be obtained by rubbing up a little of the dry 



POLYCHROME FINISHES 353 

pigment in turpentine and adding a little japan, or zinc 
white ground in oil, may be used in the same manner. 
Zinc white ground in japan is better yet, as it has 
been demonstrated that this will cling better in the 
pores of the wood. This thin paste is then applied the 
same as a paste filler, only, of course, it is not sup- 
posed to fill the pore, but merely to color it gray. 
Where gum wood is to be finished, coarse aluminum 
powder will be found superior to either that or zinc, third 
It will give a very soft effect, which is very pleasing method 
and desirable. Note that for the aluminum powder we 
specify a coarse grade. A fine powder would cling too 
much to the work, and give it a metallic sheen which 
would be very undesirable and difficult to remove. 
After this filler is thoroughly dry, a coat of wood lac- 
quer is sprayed on. In this case the lacquer should be 
reduced about 40 per cent with special wood lacquer 
thinner. When this is dry, it may be waxed or finished 
with a mixture of turpentine or rotten stone. The 
border around the top of the table may then be finished 
with the stippled effect and the legs with their turn- 
ings and carvings may be finished by using the second 
method. Designs are sometimes employed by means transfers 
of decalcomania transfers, or where expense is not sometimes 
objectionable, they are painted on by hand. These ^^^^ 
designs are, of course, only employed on large pieces, 
as for example, the center cfr at the four corners of 
the table top. Drawer fronts are sometimes orna- 
mented in like manner. 

The finisher, after reading this very brief and ele- 
mentary description of polychrome, will readily appre- 
ciate that it is a very difficult thing to convey in mere 
words the correct conception of this very beautiful 
and desirable finish. Do not forget that the employ- 
ment of wood lacquer enamels and wood lacquer itself 
will add to these desirable qualities. Present day wood 
lacquers are a scientific combination of specially 
treated gums, and pyroxylin solutions. A corps of 
chemists, laboring for years, has been engaged in the 



354 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

production of these wood lacquers which are now 
available to the wood-finishing industry. They are 
exceptionally tough and resist wear to a remarkable 
WOOD degree. They are waterproof, which means that the 

LACQUERS finish will not suffer if exposed to unfavorable climatic 

conditions. The work will not spot white as will wax 
or varnish finish; does not easily scratch, and will 
withstand successfully the wear and tear of time. 



CHAPTER LXVII 

PIGMENT COLORS USED IN POLYCHROMING 

THE USE of artist colors (pigment colors) has 
greatly increased in recent years. Enameled fur- 
niture that is decorated either by hand or stencil, 
requires the use of "tube paints" or artist colors, and „,^„^^ ^„ 

WORK IS 

the introduction of polychrome finishes added to the painting 
demand. From time to time, we have given methods 
that were being employed for the production of poly- 
chrome. We have, however, failed to touch upon one 
method that is being recommended, which, briefly, is 
the application of the color by using shellac as the 
vehicle for applying. For this purpose, it is under- 
stood that dry colors (pigment) are to be employed 
and emphasis must be placed upon the words "pigment 
colors," lest some of our finishing friends should mis- 
take our meaning and endeavor to use some of their 
stain powders. Remember, decorative and polychrome 
work is painting — not staining. 

We would not undertake to recommend any par- 
ticular way to produce polychrome. The class of work 
done must regulate the quality and kind of material to 
be employed and thus we find dry pigment colors or 
those ground in oil or japan being used, and, in each 
case, the results are beautiful — referring of course to 
polychrome and decorated enamel furniture. 

When we stop to consider the multiplicity of colors 
applied to furniture, as presented in today's decorative 
art, we realize that this work entails the use of a great 
many pigments and that a general knowledge of these 
is desirable, especially when the art of polychroming 
is new and when many of those who are decorating 
furniture have the job only on account of their natural 
artistic ability. Then, when you stop to consider that 
many shades and so-called colors are really mixtures, 



PROPER MIXING 
IS VERY 
IMPORTANT 



856 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



ADVANTAGES 
OF KNOWING 
COLORS 
CHEMICALLY 



you realize that after you have the primary colors you 
can produce the proper shades by mixing. Here, in the 
mixing, is where the inexperienced may "fall down." 

As said, decorative furniture as put out today is 
new, and we do not know which color in our decora- 
tive scheme is going to fade ; but, by learning those 
colors which will properly mix together and also those 
that are antagonistic to each other in a chemical way 
and which, although offered for sale, will fade — know- 
ing all this — ^then the decorator can go ahead and say, 
"the work is permanent." 

In the following tabulation* practically all of the 
colors offered for painter's, decorator's and general 
artist's uses are given. A close study will soon enable 
the user to select those colors with which he can por- 
tray any color scheme that may come to his mind and 
still insure permanency. There are also given recom- 
mendations of groups which constitute all the colors 
that could possibly be employed ; each grouping is abso- 
lutely permanent and safe to use and should give such 
a wide range of colors as to satisfy the most discrimi- 
nating artist. 



Alizarin Crimson 



Antwerp Blue 



American Vermilion 



Artificial alizarin lake. A powerful pur- 
ple red with excellent drying properties 
and is permanent. 

Prussian blue reduced by the addition 
of alumina hydrate, to which it owes its 
translucency. It is fairly permanent but 
mixtures with lead colors tends to turn 
it toward green. Where absolute stabil- 
ity is demanded this color may be made 
by a mixture of ultra-marine blue and 
emeraude green. 

Basic chromate of lead. It has a fair 
amount of permanence when used alone. 
But it is not suited to fine art practice. 
It is permissible in the commercial arts 
and has been known to hold for years 
when employed alone. 



•Chemical Department, De Voe and Reynolds Co., Inc. 



PIGMENT COLORS 



357 



Aureolin 



Asphaltum 
Bitumen 



Chinese Blue 
Blanc de Laque 

Brown Madder 

Burnt Sienna 
Burnt Umber 



Brown Ochre 
Brown Pink 



Bone Brown 



Blue Black 



Brilliant Yellow 

Cadmium Pale 
Cadmium Yellow 



Double nitrate of cobalt and potassium 
— this color has some of the qualities of 
the lakes. It dries well and is perma- 
nent, except when mixed with some lake 
color. In this case it should be used only 
as a glaze. In reducing aureolin always 
use zinc white. 

Asphaltum and bitumen are chemically 
the same. It is a mineral pitch, and 
while it is still demanded by some artists, 
is really quite worthless, unmanageable 
and in every way undesirable. 
Same as prussian blue, but it is slightly 
modified as to shade in the process of 
making. 

Alumina hydrate. This may be termed 
white lake, valuable in reducing opaque 
colors to which it adds translucency, and 
is a distinct addition to the artist's pal- 
ette. 

Fairly permanent, and made from gen- 
uine madder. It changes slightly after 
a lapse of time, assuming a yellower 
tone. 

Calcined raw sienna. Exceedingly rich 
in tone, highly permanent. 
Calcined raw umber. Highly permanent, 
and is, perhaps, the most indispensable 
of all the brown colors. 
Native earth. Very permanent. 
Lake made from quercitron bark. Like 
all of the lakes made from this source it 
is fugitive and should be excluded from 
the artist's palette. 

Charred bone dust. Fugitive and chem- 
ically undesirable. A mixture of ivory 
black with a trace of raw umber will pro- 
duce a permanent equivalent. 
A carbon black. Prepared from vine 
charcoal. Good drying, and is perma- 
nent. 

Chromate of lead. Permanence same as 
chrome yellow. 

This series are all sulphides of cadmium 
and are quite permanent. Cadmiums 



358 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



Cadmium Deep 
Cadmium Orange 

Crimson Madder 



Carmine, French 



Crimson Lake 



Cobalt Yellow 



Cobalt Green 



Cobalt Blue 



Cobalt Violet 



Cerulean Blue 



Chinese Vermilion 



should be made by the French process, 
and are then considered of the very best 
quality. 

Genuine madder. Permanent when dis- 
creetly employed. It is affected when 
mixed with chemical colors. It, there- 
fore, should be employed only as a glaze, 
which, in fact, is the proper method for 
all lake colors. 

Coloring matter extracted from the 
cochineal insect. It is a slow drying 
color and quite fugitive under most con- 
ditions. 

Crimson lake is derived from the same 
source as carmine. If the palette con- 
tains the madder lake series both crim- 
son lake and carmine may be dispensed 
with. 

Double nitrate of cobalt and potassium. 
A fair drying color and quite permanent. 
(See Aureolin.) 

A compound of cobalt and zinc. Cobalt 
green is an excellent pigment. It is 
opaque, covers well and is exceptionally 
permanent. With zinc white it produces 
unusually beautiful grey green tints. 
A compound of cobalt and alumina. Co- 
balt blue should be made pure and free 
from any tendency to turn green. 
A compound of cobalt and arsenic. This 
color should, more correctly, have been 
termed cobalt purple. It is not possessed 
of very great tinctorial power, but is 
highly brilliant and quite permanent. 
Originally a stannate of cobalt. This 
produces a heavy and rather gritty pig- 
ment, which does not mix well with other 
colors. Cerulean blue should be prepared 
from the oxides of cobalt, zinc and chro- 
mium. It is permanent and mixes well • 
with other colors then. 
Sulphide of mercury. Permanent when 
used discreetly. Do not mix any of the 
vermilions with colors of copper or lead, 
such as emerald green, chrome yellows 



PIGMENT COLORS 



359 



Chrome Yellow, No. 1 
Chrome Yellow, No, 2 
Chrome Yellow, No. 3 
Chrome Orange 



Chrome Green, No. 1 
Chrome Green, No. 2 
Chrome Green, No. 3 



Cremnitz White 
Caledonian Brown 



Emerald Green 



Emeraude Green 



and greens. Vermilion may be consid- 
ered permanent, because, when after 
many years it shows a change it is al- 
ways down the neutral scale, that is to 
say it does not change in hue but merely 
in its value or brilliancy. 
The chrome yellow series are all chem- 
ically chromates of lead. The stability 
of the chrome yellows depends consid- 
erably upon the method of their employ- 
ment. It is safe to say, hov/ever, that 
under most conditions they are fairly 
permanent. But they must not be mixed 
with the vermilion series. 
The chrome green series are produced 
by varying the proportions of chrome 
yellow with prussian blue. The mixture 
is logical and the stability is equal to 
either of the constituents, which is ap- 
proximately the same. To obtain abso- 
lute dependability, the color may be pro- 
duced by varying the proportion of 
emeraude green or viridian green with 
lemon yellow (chromate of barium). 
Basic carbonate of lead. 
A mixture of burnt sienna and VanDyke 
brown. A good drying' pigment and per- 
manent. 

Aceto-arsenite of copper. This pigment, 
while the most brilliant green known, is 
very undesirable, being of little , power 
in mixture with other colors, most of 
which repel it. It covers well and when 
used as a final touch is quite permanent. 
It is scarcely to be called a practical 
pigment, however, and when one has 
emeraude green and lemon yellow, it may 
easily be dispensed with. 
Hydrated sesquioxide of chromium. This 
color known, also as, viridian green, is, 
perhaps, the most perfect pigment known 
to color chemistry. It is brilliant, mixes 
well with all other colors and is abso- 
lutely permanent. From the artist's 
viewpoint, it is elemental. 



360 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



Citron Yellow 



English Vermilion 
French Vermilion 
French Naples Yellow 

Flake White 
Flesh Ochre 

Gamboge 

Geranium Lake 
Harrison Red 



Indian Red 



Indian Yellow 



Indigo 



Chromate of zinc. Fairly permanent, in 
time it turns toward green, but varnish- 
ing retards this change considerably. 
The change which occurs, however, re- 
mains fixed at that stage indefinitely, 
and it may be considered of value when 
employed as a greenish yellow. 
Sulphide of mercury (see Chinese ver- 
milion). 

Sulphide of mercury (see Chinese ver- 
milion). 

Mixture of cadmium orange and zinc 
white. Quite permanent and a good pig- 
ment. 

Basic chromate of lead. 
A permanent pigment with an ochre 
base. 

A natural gum resin. It is of the nature 
of a lake, and is not sufficiently perma- 
nent to warrant attention. 
Made from eosine, a coal tar product. 
This color is to be shunned. 
A coal tar color of a most permanent 
variety. While this pigment is slow in 
drying, it is permanent and may be used 
to replace the vermilion colors. It be- 
haves well in mixtures with the madders 
and the cadmium yellows. It is, of 
course, less brilliant than vermilion, but 
has the features of being less opaque and 
deeper in tone. 

Oxide of iron. A good drying color, has 
exceptional covering ability and is ab- 
solutely permanent. 

This coloring matter is obtained from the 
earth of the stables of native cattle in 
India which have been fed upon mango 
leaves. Indian yellow is fairly perma- 
nent. While it fades slightly in strong 
sunlight, it regains its color in a mod- 
erate light. Indian yellow dries well and 
in mixtures with other colors behaves 
admirably. 

This color is extracted from the indigo 
plant. We do not recommend it to the 



PIGMENT COLORS 



361 



Italian Pink 



Ivory Black 



King's Yellow 
Lamp Black 

Light Red 



Lemon Yellow 



Megilp 



Magenta 



Mauve 
Malachite Green 



Mars Yellow 
Mars Orange 
Mars Red 



artist. It is a slow drying color and 
fades in sunlight, it should never be 
mixed with colors containing lead. Its 
tone of blue can be exactly matched by 
the mixture of ultramarine blue, ivory 
black and a trace of emeraude green 
which is a practicable mixture, drying 
well and is permanent. 
Italian pink is prepared from a fast lake 
and is quite permanent, it dries well and 
is chemically inactive. 
Charred ivory. Dense, permanent and 
may be safely mixed with all other pig- 
ments. 

Chromate of lead (see chrome yellow). 
A form of carbon black, is a slow dryer, 
but very permanent. 

Calcined yellow ochre. A good drying 
color of great strength and highly per- 
manent. 

Chromate of barium. In itself it is 
highly permanent. Mixtures with the 
raw earth colors should be avoided. It 
has a slight action on the madders, but 
not sufficiently to condemn it. 
A mixture of pale drying oil and mastic 
varnish. Great care should be exercised 
in using this medium as it is one of the 
prime causes for a picture cracking and 
alligatoring. 

A coal tar color on an alumina base. 
This beautiful brilliant purple color, un- 
fortunately is a fugitive and is of no 
value in art work. 
(Same as magenta.) 

Hydrated carbonate of copper. Is af- 
fected by sulphuretted hydrogen. It has 
very little tinctorial power and is not a 
practical pigment. Its tone can be imi- 
tated by the mixture of zinc white, 
emeraude green and a trace of raw 
sienna. 

This series is practically the same as 
the ochres, all of which are oxides of 
iron. Thev attack most lake colors when 



362 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



Mars Brown 
Mars Violet 



Madder Lake 



Madder Lake Deep 
Madder Carmine 
Naples Yellow, No, 1 
Naples Yellow, No, 2 
Naples Yellow, No, 3 
New Blue 



Nopal Red 
Nopal Orange 
Olive Green 



Oxide of Chromium 



Orange Vermilion 



Pink Madder 
Paynes Grey 



Purple Madder 
Permanent Blue 
Permanent Yellow 



in a mixture, but they are safe to use if 
allowed to dry and then be glazed over. 
The mars colors in themselves are highly 
permanent and may be mixed -with all 
mineral pigments. 

Genuine madder, obtained from the root 
of the madder plant. The madders col- 
ors are all quite permanent when used 
alone and may be mixed with some of 
the colors, exceptions being the chromes 
and all other metallic pigments. All 
lakes are properly employed as glazes 
over dry surfaces. 
(See madder lake.) 
(See madder lake.) 

The naples yellows are prepared from 
cadmium ochre, and zinc oxide, they are 
permanent and good drying colors. 
Artificial ultramarine. New blue is 
quite permanent except when mixed with 
colors containing lead. 
Aniline colors. Fugitive. 

Mixture of raw sienna and Antwerp 
blue. This pigment is fugitive, the 
sienna completely consumes the blue in 
a comparatively short time. 
An opaque pigment, valuable for the cool 
grey green tints which it makes when 
mixed with white. It is absolutely per- 
manent and a good drying pigment and 
may be mixed with all other pigments. 
Sulphide of mercury of yellow tone. It 
dries well and is permanent. (See Chi- 
nese vermision.) 

A weak form of genuine madder. (See 
madder lake.) 

-Prepared from ultramarine blue, black 
and a trace of ochre. It is permanent 
and dries well. 
(See madder lake.) 
(See new blue.) 

Chromate of barium and zinc white. A 
slow drying color, but quite permanent, 
it may be mixed with all other colors. 



PIGMENT COLORS 



363 



Permanent White 
Permanent Green, No, 
Permanent Green, No, 
Permanent Green, No, 



Prussian Blue 



Purple Lake 
Perfect Yellow- 
Raw Sienna 

Raw Umber 
Rubens Madder 

Rose Dore 
Rose Carthame 



Rose Madder 
Sepia 



Scarlet Madder 
Scarlet Vermilion 

Strontian Yellow 



with the exception of the raw ochres. 
Zinc oxide. Permanent. 
1 Permanent green, No. 3 (deep), is ses- 
2quioxide of chromium, reduced by the 
3 addition of alumina hydrate, the other 
permanent greens are the same toned 
by the addition of zinc chromate. They 
are permanent pigments. 
Ferro cyanide of iron. Many chapters 
could be devoted to the actions of Prus- 
sian blue, under various conditions of 
exposure. It is, however, safe to say 
that it is permanent when used with a 
palette of colors to which it is agreeable, 
chemically. Prussian blue fades to light 
but regains its full color when placed in 
a dark room. Where absolute stability 
is required and this tone of blue is de- 
sired, we suggest that ultramarine blue 
in a mixture with emeraude green will 
produce a pigment of a similar tone, ab- 
solutely permanent, and with good quali- 
ties. 

A variety of crimson lake. Fugitive. 
Barium chromate. Synonymous with 
lemon yellow. 

Native earth. A good dryer and one of 
the most permanent pigments. 
Native earth. Permanent. 
Variety of genuine madder (see madder 
lake). 

Genuine madder (see madder lake). 
Prepared from the dye eosine. Fugitive, 
superfluous in the presence of scarlet 
madder. Originally made from the flow- 
ers of the carthamus plant. 
Genuine madder (see madder lake). 
Coloring matter obtained from the cut- 
tle fish. A fugitive and superfluous pig- 
ment, it may be imitated in many ways 
with permanent pigments. 
Genuine madder. 

Sulphide of mercury. (See Chinese ver- 
milion.) 
Chromate of strontium. A neutral yel- 



364 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



Sap Green 

Scarlet Lake 
Silver White 
Transparent — 
Gold Ochre 
Terra Rosa 

Terra Verte 



Ultramarine Blue 
Ultramarine Ash 

Viridian Green 
VanDyke Brown 

Venetian Red 

Veronese Green 

Verdigris 

Violet Carmine 
Yellow Lake 

Yellow Ochre 



low. It is moderately permanent. 

Sap green is prepared from a fast lake, 

and is quite permanent, 

A modified madder lake. Permanent. 

Basic carbonate of lead. 

A selected variety of raw sienna. 

Sesquioxide of iron and clay. A fast dry- 
ing natural pigment. Permanent. 
Green hydrated oxide of iron of fair 
permanence, weak in color with scarcely 
any excuse for its existence. The tone 
may be obtained with permanent and 
practical pigments. For instance, viri- 
dine green with raw sienna and a trace 
of zinc white. 

Artificial ultramarine. It is permanent 
except when mixed with colors contain- 
ing lead. 

A rather weak variety of the penuine 
lapis lazuli, it is permanent, and may be 
mixed with all other colors, 
(See emeraude.) 

Native earth. Rich in tone, dries well, 
and is permanent. 

Oxide of iron. It is an extremely pow- 
erful color and highly permanent. 
Prepared from emerauda green and 
Cremnitz white. For stability, see em- 
erald green. 

Acetate of copper, affected by sulphui 
gases violently attacks all lake colors, 
and in itself is a fugitive color. 
Prepared from the root of the plant "an- 
chusa tinctoria," is fairly permanent. 
In general, yellow lake is produced from 
quercitron bark and when so made, is 
fugitive. A yellow lake may be made 
that is fairly permanent. 
Native earth. Quite permanent. Mav 
be mixed with all other mineral pig- 
ments, but as in all such colors it must 
not be mixed with lake colors. Lake 
colors should always be used as glazes 
on a color that has thoroughly dried. 



PIGMENT COLORS 



365 



Zinc Yellow 



Zinnober Green — L 
Zinnober Green — M 
Zinnober Green — D 
Zinc White 



Chromate of zinc. Zinc yellow is in- 
clined, upon exposure to strong light, to 
turn towards green. It remains perma- 
nently fixed at this stage, and when em- 
ployed as a greenish yellow, it may be 
considered as a permanent pigment. 
Zinnober greens are the same as the 
chrome greens. 

Oxide of zinc. 



PERMANENT PIGMENTS 

Arrangements of permanent pigments, which an 
artist may employ without fear of chemical reaction. 
Pigments permanent in themselves, and when mixed 
together. 



PALETTE No. 1, PERMANENT 
Alizarin Madders 
Genuine Madders 
Cadmium Yellow 
Cadmium Orange 
Lemon Yellow (Barium 

Chromate) 
Emeraude Green 
Viridine Green 
Oxide of Chromium 
Ultramarine Blue 
Permanent Blue 
Cobalt Blue 

PALETTE No. 2, PERMANENT 
Emeraude Green 
Viridine Green 
Oxide of Chromium 
Vermilion (Mercury) 
Ultramarine (with zinc 

white only) 
Transparent Gold Ochre 
Vandyke Brown 
Yellow Ochre 
The Mars Colors 
Burnt Sienna 



AND INTERMIXABLE 

Cobalt Violet 
Cerulean Blue 
Indian Red 
Light Red 
Burnt Sienna 
Burnt Umber 
Vandyke Brown 
Ivory Black 
Blue Black 
Lamp Black 
Zinc White 
Vermilion (Mercury) 

AND INTERMIXABLE 

Raw Sienna 
Burnt Umber 
Raw Umber 
Ivory Black 
Blue Black 
Lamp Black 
Venetian Red 
Light Red 
Indian Red 
Zinc White 
Lead Whites 



366 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



CARE SHOULD 
BE USED IN 
MIXING 



COLOR MIXING 
CAN BE 
ACQUIRED 



If the madder lake colors are used with this palette 
do not mix with the raw ochres which include mars 
series, yellow and gold ochre. Ultramarine should not 
be mixed with lead white. 

Decorators, artists and finishers are giving more 
and more attention to the quality of the materials they 
employ. The permanence of pigments is the funda- 
mental factor in the preservation of this form of deco- 
ration or painting. With a general knowledge of the 
chemistry and composition of pigments, the user will 
be able to avoid those disastrous mistakes in their mix- 
tures — the results of which are too often attributed to 
the color man. 

One of the elements upon which the art of painting 
is founded, is the ability of the artist to compound 
from the elemental pigments tones of color to suit his 
individual requirements. This knowledge comes only 
with experience, after which the artist is able to forget 
the machinery of his profession and to apply his whole 
attention to expression. 

Color mixing comes easily and naturally to some. 
Others may readily acquire a knowledge because there 
are many well defined laws of color, some efficient and 
simple, and others are complicated and usually asso- 
ciated with some one of the many color theories. 

A clear understanding of the fundamentals of color, 
that is, the simple law as applies to the difference be- 
tween the optical and the physical mixing of color, is 
quite sufficient for many. Others will follow through 
the best of instructions, observation and experience, 
together with constant application. 

Lemon or zinc yellow, when mixed in varying pro- 
portions with blue black, result in a series of warm 
green tones of great value in landscape painting and 
the mixture is permanent. 

Zinc yellow is balanced exactly between Chinese 
vermilion and emeraude green. The addition of alii 
zarin scarlet and cobalt blue, provides a palette ar- 



MIXING 



PIGMENT COLORS 367 

rangement of pure colors, capable of any demand and 
their permanence is perfect. 

Cadmium lemon, while, superficially of a warmer 
tone than lemon yellow, transmits an exceptional 
amount of green, it mixes well both ways, red or blue. 
The cadmium colors, being sulphides, should not be 
mixed with lead colors, or colors containing copper, 
which would result in releasing the sulphur to the 
detriment of both colors. While all of the cadmium hints on 
colors are quite permanent, the orange cadmium is 
unusually so, they are all, deep full saturated pigments 
and in spite of their higher cost, are economical. Ver- 
milion, though it is of exceptional brilliancy, is lost 
when one would associate a neutral red with the lower 
values of veridine or ultramarine. A deeper equiv- 
alent of vermilion may be made by toning alizarin 
crimson with cadmium orange, which gives a color of 
great quality and durability. (Semi opaque.) 

Light red, carried down with alizarin crimson, has 
quality and is of value, associates well with oxide of 
chromium, ultramarine and cadmium. 

Of the green series of pigments, there are an abun- 
dance, emeraude, veridine, cobalt green and oxide of 
chromium. These are all good and may be depended 
upon absolutely. Olive green may be produced from 
emeraude and sienna and brought up by the addition 
of zinc yellow. The olive green so made may be given green series 
a lake quality by the addition of blanc de laque 
(alumina hydrate). Cobalt green is quite opaque; is 
in this sense to be classified with yellow ochre, light 
and Indian red and Prussian blue, cadmium orange and 
vermilion. Oxide of chromium is in many ways sim- 
ilar to cobalt green ; it is also a permanent pigment. 

Note — Where the expense of emeraude or veridine 
green is of consideration, we recommend permanent 
green deep. It is chemically the same, but is less sat- 
urated than the chromiums mentioned. 

Of the blue pigments, nearly all are good ; first, in 



MIXING 
OF THE 



368 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

the consideration of the majority of artists, is ultra- 
marine (Gumet). This product is known, also, as 
French blue. It is, perhaps, the most carefully pre- 
THE BLUE pared of all the ultramarine series and contains less 

SERIES free sulphur. When mixed with Alizarin crimson it 

produces a purple, which, while not so clear as may be 
gotten from cobalt, has more of the plastic quality de- 
sired. 

Cobalt blue has the advantage of the sulphur blues, 
as it may be mixed with all colors. Chemically it is a 
perfect color. New blue, which has approximately the 
same tone and degree of visual purity as cobalt, may 
be used as a cheaper substitute. 

Curulean blue has been condemned by some artists, 
owing to the fact that it is gritty, disagreeable to man- 
age and has the tendency to turn greenish in time. 
In order to supply the artist with this tone of blue, 
which also has excellent quality as a pigment, we sug- 
gest using that prepared from the oxides, cobalt, zinc 
and chromium. It is a permanent pigment which 
mixes well with all other pigments of a similar con- 
sistency and will not change. 

Cobalt violet (or purple) is an exceptionally good 
pigment. In spite of its lack of power, it is visually 
intense, a good drying color and is permanent, form- 
ing a good base upon which to throw rose madder, or 
other lake colors. It may be employed to advantage 
in carrying ultramarine over toward violet, without 
impairing the luminosity of the resultant mixture. 
The aniline violet and purple pigments, unfortunately, 
are without value to the artist. 



CHAPTER LXVIII 

BURNISH POWDERS • 

BURNISH powders are coming into general use, 
and most manufacturers who have air brush 
equipment are using them to produce burnished 
gold and color effects on moldings and metal orna- 
ments. The method of application is as follows : 

First sandpaper the wooden surface very smoothly, method of 
using a fine grade of sand paper, dust, and apply the applying 
first coat of which is known as "gilder's whiting glue 
size." The size is prepared as follows: Dissolve one- 
half pound of Cooper's white glue in warm water. 
(Any other first-class animal glue that is free from 
acid will answer.) This mixture is known as "stock 
glue" or "glue sizing." Mix with this stock glue suf- 
ficient gilder's bolted whiting to form a mixture the 
consistency of very thin paint. This should be sprayed 
on the surface — three coats. The second and third 
coats should not be applied until the others have dried 
thoroughly, and the first coat, after drying, should be 
rubbed down with fine sandpaper. When the third 
coat is absolutely dry, and sanded down, apply the 
"clay coat." 

The clay coat is made from "red burnish clay" „„^^,^^ ,e. 
mixed with the glue stock described above. It should mixed with 
be as thin as possible, but it must cover the white glue size 
coat completely. This is the most important coat, as 
it is the underground upon which the powder is ap- 
plied and which permits of the burnishing. 

The bronze, or burnish, powder is also mixed with 
the glue size. The proportion is approximately two 
pounds of powder to one gallon of stock glue. The 
mixture should be thin, but enough bronze should be 
carried in it to thoroughly cover the clay coat. Before 
applying, add two teaspoonfuls of alcohol to the gallon • 



370 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



USING AN 

AGATE 

BURNISHER 



mixture, and agitate the three ingredients thoroughly. 

The application of this bronze mixture should be 
done with the air brush, or a soft camel's hair brush 
can be used. The coat should be thin. The mixture 
should be warm — not less than 120 degrees Fahrenheit, 
and previous coatings should be bone dry. 

When the bronze coat has thoroughly hardened, 
it can be burnished with an agate burnisher, by simply 
rubbing the burnisher over the bronze until the desired 
effect is produced. 

If a protective coating is wanted, the work should 
next be sprayed or brushed with lacquer, or a bronze 
protector. Different color effects can be secured by 
using flat japan colors. These colors must be those 
which have been ground in japan, as nothing else will 
answer, and they should be thinned with benzine. 

If a bright burnish is desired, rub the bronze pow- 
der coat lightly with beeswax and apply a bit of the 
wax to the burnisher. 

If bronze is to be used over compo, it is necessary 
to first coat the work with white or orange shellac be- 
fore proceeding with the white coat as above outlined. 
If metal is to be burnished, the first coat should be a 
thin, clear, hard drying lacquer, over which the first 
white coat is applied. 

On special work, which does not permit the use 
of the air brush, and on small jobs, the bronze can 
be mixed in small quantities as needed, and applied 
with a brush or the fingers. When applying by the 
latter method, the bronze paste should be of "creamy" 
texture, and it can be worked up in a small mixing cup 
or on a slab. Very attractive effects can be had by 
using different colors of burnishing powders. 



FOR BURNISHING PICTURE FRAMES OR OTHER 
SMALL SURFACES 



1 — Sand the frame until it is smooth. 
2 — Mix up a small quantity of fine "gilder's whit- 
ing" with a very weak solution of hot glue and water. 



BURNISH POWDERS 371 

Apply two coats. The glue solution must be very weak 
otherwise it will chip and crack off the frame. 

3 — Sand this down after it is dry with very fine 
sandpaper until it becomes smooth. 

4 — Take red or blue burnish size, mix with it a 
very weak solution of hot glue and water. Apply two 
coats. If this appears rough after it is dry, rub lightly 
with fine sandpaper. 

5 — Using burnish gold bronze, mix a small amount burnishing 
of alcohol with it into a paste form, then add a weak small 
solution of hot glue and water. Stir well while doing surfaces 
it. Always apply hot if you want good results. The 
best way is to keep the cup in hot water — that keeps 
it from chilling. Give two coats of bronze, letting first 
coat dry before applying the second. 

6 — Let dry for about five hours, then rub lightly 
with the agate burnisher, which must be prepared by 
rubbing the agate on a piece of leather with emery and 
crude oil until the glassy finish on it is removed. Then 
you are assured of good results. 

7 — Apply a coat of H. G. lacquer on top of the 
bronze and the finish is complete. If you want to tone 
down the bronze to make it look antique, apply a thin 
coat of japan colors, whatever shade is desired. Burnt 
umber is largely used. Thin with bezine, apply to the 
frame and wipe off high lights. 



CHAPTER LXIX 

GOVERNMENT PROTECTION TO MANUFACTURER 

IT IS NOT generally known that turpentine, which 
is use in every finishing room, and in so many dif- 
ferent ways in the manufacturing industries, has 
a governmental standard, according to an act regulat- 
ing the sale of turpentine and providing penalties for 
the violation of this act. Turpentine is designated Pure 
Gum Spirits of Turpentine, and every dealer or manu- 
facturer selling this article must so brand it. All that 
is necessary is to demand spirits of turpentine, as 
designated by the government, and it is then up to the 
manufacturer or wholesaler to deliver the article. 

Provisions are made in the act for the marking or 
labeling of compounds which distinctly prescribes that 
it shall be labeled "Adulterated Turpentine." Turpen- 
tine made from wood by the distillation of pine stumps, 
etc., must be labeled Wood Turpentine. A good deal 
of adulterated turpentine is still for sale, and is offered 
where price competition is strong because it is so easily 
adulterated with naphtha. The act regulating the sale 
of the genuine article is not generally known by the 
consumer. As soon as the buyer understands what he 
can rightfully demand, all that is necessary, for him 
to do, is to ask the salesman to deliver to him spirits 
of turpentine according to the act, which is very 
plain. 

The act as given is that of the State of Michigan, 
and in all points it is practically the same as that of 
other states governing the sale of turpentine. 

We give herewith a co^ of the house enrolled act 
regulating the sale of turpentine and providing penal- 
ties for the violation of the act: 

Section 1. No person, firm or corporation shall 
manufacture, mix for sale, sell or offer for sale, for 
other than medicinal purposes under the name of tur- 
pentine or under the name composed of a part or parts 
of the word turpentine, or spirits of turpentine, and 



ATTEMPTS TO 

PREVENT 

ADULTERATION 



374 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



TURPENTINE 
HAS MANY 
SUBSTITUTES 



STATE 

AUTHORITIES 

PROSECUTE 



any article which is not wholly distilled from resin, 
turpentine gum, or scrape from pine trees and un- 
mixed and unadulterated with oil, benzine or other for- 
eign substances of any kind whatsoever, unless the 
package containing the same shall be stenciled or 
marked with letters not less than one inch square and 
one-fourth inch apart, "Adulterated Turpentine," ex- 
cept turpentine produced from turpentine gum, ex- 
tracted wholly from pine wood which turpentine is 
known as "wood turpentine," must be stenciled or 
marked "wood turpentine" with letters not less than 
one inch square and one-fourth inch apart. When such 
wood turpentine is mixed and adulterated with oil, ben- 
zine or other foreign substances of any kind whatso- 
ever, the container shall be stenciled or marked "Adul- 
terated Wood Turpentine" with letters not less than 
one inch square and one-fourth inch apart. When 
wood turpentine is mixed with turpentine distilled from 
resin, turpentine gum, or scraped from pine trees in any 
quantity whatsoever, the container shall be stenciled 
or marked "wood turpentine" with letters not less one 
inch square and one-fourth inch apart. Nothing herein 
contained shall be construed to prohibit the manufac- 
ture or sale of any compound or imitation, providing 
the container shall be plainly marked and the purchaser 
notified as aforesaid. 

Section 2. The dairy and food commissioner of 
Michigan shall enforce the provisions of this chapter 
and the penal statute relating thereto, and such com- 
missioner, his assistants, experts, chemists and agents 
shall have access and ingress to the places of business, 
stores and buildings used for the sale of turpentine, 
and may open any package, can or jar or other recep- 
tacles containing any turpentine that may be manufac- 
tured, sold or offered foip sale in violation of this 
statute. The inspectors, assistants or chemists ap- 
pointed by such commissioner shall perform like duties 
and have like authority under this chapter and the 
penal statutes relating thereto as is provided by law. 
Such commissioner shall publish bulletins from time to 
time giving the results of the inspection and analysis 
with such information as he deems suitable. 



GOVER NMENT PROTECTION TO MANUFACTURER 375 

Section 3. Whosoever violates any provisions of 
law relating to the labeling, marking or stenciling of 
turpentine or wood turpentine by manufacturers or 
distributors thereof, shall be fined not more than $50 
for the first offense, and for each subsequent off'ense 
shall be fined not less than $50 nor more than $100, or 
imprisoned not less than 30 days, nor more than 100 
days or both. 

Under the name of Texico spirits, the Texas Com- 
pany, which has oflftces in all of the larger cities, is 
marketing their product, the solvent powders of which 
are comparative with turpentine and which is recom- 
mended in the place of turpentine. The following tests 
are given: 

Gravity.-- -. 50 degrees B. 

Flash _ 100 degrees F. 

Boiling point... 276 degrees 

Evaporation ...18 minutes 

Solvent power comparative with turpentine. 



PENALTY FOR 
OFFENDING 



TEXICO 
SPIRITS 



STORING 

FINISHED 

STOCK 



CHAPTER LXX 

THE CARE OF RAW FINISHED STOCK 

WITH the furniture factory, planing mill, or any- 
where that the finished stock is of a grade that 
is finished natural and not painted; where 
freshness and the tone of the wood is an object, it is 
almost as important to take proper care of raw finished 
stock after it has been through the machine as it is to 
exercise care in doing the work right with the machine. 

Anybody knows, or ought to know, that it is not 
good for clean, bright, finished stock to be handled with 
soiled hands. In sash and door houses where they 
exercise great care in keeping the stock fresh, because 
it must be kept stored a long time, they often make the 
men handling it wear clean duck gloves or something 
of the kind, to prevent soiling it with the hands. 

Then in storing it they take pains to keep not only 
the sunlight but the daylight away from the stock. 
They keep it in dark warehouses where it will remain 
as fresh as if it had just come from the machine. 

Stock in the furniture factory is not often carried 
such a length of time before being finished because it 
is realized that the sooner the finisher follows after 
the jointer the better. Often, however, it is necessary 
to keep the stock stored some time before it is put up 
and finished. For this purpose provision should be storageroom 
made to protect the stock not only from dirt and dust, 
but from sunlight and, in so far as it is practical, from 
daylight. 

Y'ou should have dark storage rooms that are clean, 
and preferably dust-proof; especially should you have 
these for left-over stock that may come in useful on a 
future order. It is the one sure way to keep it fresh, 
and to get real satisfaction out of the work. 

Above all, sunlight should be avoided. A truck load 
of finished stock should not be allowed to stand where 
the sun shines on it brightly. The sun is one of the 
greatest bleaching agents and will take the life and 



ought to 

BE DARK 



378 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



FINISHING 
ROOM A PLACE 
OF CONCERN 



LAX METHODS 
ENCOUNTERED 



tone out of wood quicker than almost anything else 
except the splashing and dripping of water on it, a 
thing which is not allowed in any well regulated in- 
stitution. 

The finishing room of an up-to-date factory is no 
longer a place of filler and varnish, but in reality has 
become a place of concern. The numerous new styles 
of furniture carried with the different colors peculiar 
to each historical period, and latterly the scarcity of 
native woods, the introduction of foreign woods, and 
the using of cheaper woods, together with some woods 
heretofore considered unworthy of use, have put upon 
the finishing department a problem for every day. 

The individuality of colors, or shades, adopted by 
manufacturers, those who are leaders in styles and 
fashion and are considered originators, who thus have 
the prerogative of establishing colors, which must be 
followed by others, places upon the finishing room 
the responsibility of matching these colors and styles 
of finish. All this has become such an art that the 
foreman of every factory must be not only a foreman, 
but, at the same time, a color artist. His office nowa- 
days represents a small laboratory. 

There are many other problems which confront 
the finishing department. The preparation of the 
work, the mixing of the fillers, quality, color, and 
shade, shellacs, first coaters, varnishes, waxes, etc., all 
call for attention. In all of these the foreman finisher 
has to consider the color, quality and uniformity. While 
everyone has his own way of judging the quality, there 
are certain methods and tests which may be used which 
we hope to present in a simple manner so that they 
can be adopted and employed by the man who wants 
to know. 

The first difficulty encountered by the finishing de- 
partment are often the lax methods of the joining room. 
Although this department, in recent years, has received 
more attention than any other, it is still in need of 
radical correction. The chief fault is the inattention 
in matching. For instance, it is not uncommon to see 
a nice table top with the wood laid one piece up tree and 
the other down, thus imposing on the finisher the task 



CARE OF RAW FINISHED STOCK 379 

of getting an even shade with the pores running two 
ways. Especially is this difficult on filled wood. Had 
more care been taken in matching the wood, the finished 
product would have been enhanced in value. 

Here the finishing department can work out its own 
salvation only by the persistent rejection of poorly 
matched woods. There are certain methods of over- 
coming these poor matches, but it takes time, and time 
is money. The up-todate finisher has bleaches with Q^gp^^oj^jj^g 
which he bleaches out a quantity of sap. He has alka- poq^ly 
lies or acids with which he forces his colors into a matched 
harder board or a second growth piece of wood, none work 
of which can overcome or match up to a piece of work 
which has been properly laid together in a joining 
room. The higher the grade of furniture made, the 
less of these difficulties there are to be encountered, so 
that the man who is turning out a cheap line of furni- 
ture has the greater color difficulties. But there are 
remedies at hand, methods for handling these difficul- 
ties, that we hope to offer. 

Every finishing department is called upon to deliver 
different results. One factory may turn out nothing 
but dull finishes, with but an occasional polished piece. 
In a piano factory it may be vastly different, but the 
possibility for any finishing department to get a run 
of any one particular style of finish remains ; the ques- 
tion then is, which method will give the best, quickest, 
and most permanent results? The question of a good 
rubbing polish is not the only proposition to encounter. 
The varnish to be polished is again put up to the finish- hints for 
ing department. The varnish that has been employed overcoming 
for years may fall down ; the polish may be blamed, difficulties 
It is the intention to publish a few hints that will 
alleviate these difficulties. 

Years ago colors were produced from vegetable 
extract matter, some few known chemicals and gases. 
Science now steps in and hands us any amount of 
shades or colors which can be applied in three known 
solvents — water, spirit or oil. The permanency of 
some of these modern colors exceeds that of others. 
For the chemist who knows these preparations, it is an 
easy matter to produce shades by the mixing of the 



380 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



NOVICE HAS 
TROUBLE IN 
PRODUCING 
SHADES 



primary colors that are permanent. It then depends 
upon the kind of color employed in compounding, 
whereas the novice would encounter all kinds of diffi- 
culties by going in the open market and attempting the 
production of colors and shades, with the meager 
knowledge that at the present time is possessed by the 
consumer. 

The laboratories of the up-to-date stain manufac- 
turers are continually experimenting with the products 
as fast as they are produced by the manufacturer of 
colors. Here they are put through all manner of tests. 
Not only are these laboratories familiar with these 
products, so that admixture of colors is done scien- 
tifically, but their experiences are invaluable in getting 
out time-saving and money-saving stain. The man 
who is continually confronted with new shades, shades 
of a competitor to match, shades that are just a little 
different than his own, a certain familiarity with the 
stain and colors which are offered for his use are 
requisite. 



FINISHING 



CHAPTER LXXI 

COST KEEPING IN FINISHING 

AN example for cost keeping which may serve the 
finisher for a basis of obtaining the exact cost 
to finish a certain piece, was published in an 
article by J. W. Withers. It will give the foreman a ^°^^5„'^^.^ 
good idea of how to establish the cost. Take the time 
of an average workrnan ; the cost of material used can 
be taken from a day's work and averaged. 

We will take the brush fumed finish for an example, 
as about 36 out of 50 will be finished this way. The 
prices are as follows: 

Sponging $ .04 

Sanding _ 16 

Staining ....- .09 Inside and outside 

Sanding .19 

Shellacing _ .08 Inside and outside 

Sanding . .15 

Shellacing .08 Inside and outside 

Shading 18 

Sanding .11 

Waxing and wiping off ... .10 

Total $1.18 

The method used is to thoroughly dust the article 
and sponge the surface well with w^ater, allowing it to 
dry and then sand the grain level with fine sandpaper, 
using a felt block (as far as possible) to wrap the 
sandpaper around. Then stain. After drying, it is 
again sanded. Then shellac with white shellac thinned 
to one-half its ordinary thickness and sand. Then shel- 
lac the second time ; then shade with the proper aniline 
dye dissolved in spirits ; apply with a small camel's hair 
brush and blend with a small cotton pad. This color 
does for the touching up of any corners that may be 
sanded "white." After the shading, the final sanding 
is done. The shading is a particular job, but a good 
man can work wonders with white sap streaks, and 



PROCESS FOR 
BRUSH FUMING 



PROCESS IS 
ECONOMICAL 



382 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

any differences of color soon vanish under his touch, 
and a fine, uniform tone results. 

The reason the shading is not done between the 
coats of shellac is that we found the last coat of shellac 
blurred the aniline shading stain, and a muddy look 
would appear, so we changed, and with good results. 

It may be said, in connection with this work, that 
at first we were inclined to think the labor cost more 
than the material saved and, in some cases, it really 
did ; but as the men grew more expert at it, we saved 
money. At the price quartered oak is at present, it 
pays to do it. In any veneered work it does not pay, 
so the sap edges are always cut off. 



CHAPTER LXXII 

STORAGE OF FINISHING MATERIALS 

STORING and proper distribution of finishing sup- 
plies is accomplished by the Wayne and Bowser 
systems. A familiarity with these systems will 
at once show the finisher the great advantages and two familiar 
assistance he has in the distribution of the finishing systems op 
materials to the workmen. All supplies can be piped storing 
directly to his office, and drawn from either the oil 
house or basement, whichever may be the most con- 
venient place for storing of the materials. 

Exact record can be kept ; first, of the consumption 
per day ; second, of stock on hand, and absolute unifor- 







WAYNE BATTERY OF TANKS 



mity of material assured. The expense of the installa- 
tion is made up by the saving and the reduction of 
insurance expense. 

The Wayne and Bowser systems are especially con- 
structed for storing and distributing oils in factories. 
Heavy steel tanks are leak and evaporation proof and 



384 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



SYSTEMS OF 

BATTERY 

TANKS 



pumps are self measuring. They keep the oils, var- 
nishes, etc., at the original consistency, insuring uni- 
formity, and practically eliminating fire hazard. 

The Wayne and Bowser systems of battery tanks 
make an ideal arrangement for storing and handling 
oils in an oil house. The respective tanks are always 
of the same length and height, varying in width only 
to make the desired capacity. When desired, a barrel 
track can be placed over the tanks with a cradle extend- 
ing to the floor. The barrel is rolled onto the cradle 
and raised to the track level with a chain hoist. A 




BOWSER "standard" OH. STORAGE OUTFIT 



splash pan prevents slop or waste. Where volatiles are 
to be stored the underground system is used. These 
battery systems require about 35 per cent less floor 
space than barrels of the same capacity, and are 
cheaper and more convenient. 

Tanks may be installed singly. Tanks are labeled 
with the name of the oil each is to contain, and the 
pumps lock, making it impossible for anyone to obtain 



STORAGE OF FINISHING MATERIALS 



385 



oil without a key. One man can easily handle and 
empty the barrels. The splash pan prevents waste and -waste and 
sloping. It is placed in position over the proper tank, sloping 
the bung of the barrel is removed, and the barrel rolled prevented 
over the pan to the proper position. The pan can be 
adjusted easily and quickly. 

The systems provide for the burying underground, 
in basements, or in vaults, of tanks from which oils 
may be pumped throughout the plant with long-distance 
measuring pumps. This is most economical when con- 




BOWSER SYSTEM NO. 109 



ditions will permit it. The tanks may be placed a rea- 
sonable distance from the building. 

In many instances oil is stored in the various de- 
partments, as a means of saving time and labor. In 
the Wayne system roll top cabinets are adapted for roll top 
that purpose. The cabinet is made of steel and the top cabinets 
closes, making it dustproof . The measuring pump can ^^^ ^^^ 
be adjusted to give the different measures, preventing 
loss of time and oil, and cutting down the fire hazard. 
The cabinet is a splendid arrangement for handling 
turpentine, oil, varnishes, etc., in the finishing depart- 
ment. 

The Bowser safe oil storage systems provide the 



386 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



ideal, wasteless way to handle these liquids in any 
quantity. The exact amount desired is pumped. There 
is no over measure, no inaccurate measures to be left 
lying around to "gum up," collecting dust and dirt, in- 
creasing the fire risk and producing nothing but loss. 
The oils are kept free from evaporation and gumming. 
The formation of "foots" and "fats" is prevented. 
The last gallon of liquid can be pumped from the tank 
in as good a condition as the first one. 

The Bowser Cut 109 system is more than a collec- 
tion of pumps and tanks. It puts the oil room on a sys- 




BOWSER UNDERGROUND STORAGE SYSTEM 



OIL ROOM ON 
SYSTEMATIC 
BASIS 



tematic basis. Everything is right where it belongs. 
The oil room can be kept as neat and clean as any part 
of the shop or store. There is no increased fire hazard 
because of the use of Bowser equipment, but on the 
other hand, the fire risk is greatly reduced over old 
methods of storage. The equipment presents a neat 
appearance as the tanks can be set in a row along the 
side wall where they take up but very little floor space. 
Each pump is plainly marked so that there will be no 
mistakes made by drawing the wrong kind of oil. There 
is less likelihood of the oil supply becoming exhausted 
for the operator can tell in a few minutes just how 
much liquid is in any particular tank. 



STORAGE OF FINISHING MATERIALS 



387 



The distribution of oil in factory requires consid- 
erable time unless special means are provided. It is 
a violation of economics to permit skilled labor to waste 
time going after oil. The portable tank makes this 
unnecessary. This tank is made of heavy tank steel, 
mounted on indestructible steel wheels with rubber 
cushion tires and two rubber-tired guide wheels. It 
is provided with a self -measuring quart pump. Capa- 
city of tank, 50 gallons. The wheels have steel bear- 



DISTRIBUTION 
OF OIL IN 
FACTORY 




STANDARD STORAGE OUTFIT 



ings which make the tank easy to push about the fac- 
tory. A boy or unskilled laborer can push this tank 
about the factory and deliver oil to the hands. This 
keeps the skilled labor at the benches all the time and 
promotes shop discipline. 



CHAPTER LXXIII 

SPECIAL HINTS TO ARTISANS 

A METHOD of applying gold leaf, that is claimed 
to eliminate waste is as follows : Rub a piece 
of tissue paper on one side with a piece of wax 
candle or beeswax. Your paper will now have a cer- applying 
tain degree of tackiness, enough to cause the leaf to gold leaf 
adhere. Now cut this sheet into squares a little larger 
than the gold leaf. Regular waxed paper, which is 
used for doing up sandwiches, lunches, etc., could also 
be used. Then open your book, place the waxed side 
of the tissue paper on the gold leaf, gently pressing it. 
On removing, the gold leaf is attached to it, rendering 
it very easy to use. The tissue paper being transpar- 
ent, you can see just where you want to place it, or if 
you desire, you can cut your leaf to suit. By taking the 
tissue paper in the left hand, placing it with the gold 
leaf side to the letters, and rubbing the back lightly, 
with the right hand, the gold will adhere to the size, 
and you can use the tissue paper over and over again. 
This is claimed to have the old way of using the tip 
and cushion beat a mile, and is said to be a much faster 
way of handling the leaf. 

Formulas for gold paint are legion and every manu- 
facturer has his own secret composition, says an ex- 
change. Essentially, gold paint is bronze powder mixed 
with a varnish, or other medium, and it is to the dis- pqrmula for 
covery of a perfect medium that attempts are being ^qld faint 
directed. Suffice it. to say, that perfection has not come 
yet, and that the finest gold paint is markedly inferior, 
both as regards appearance and durability, to the gold 
leaf gilding which it is supposed to imitate. The best 
bronze powder for making gold paint has the trade 
name of French flake. This is a deep gold color and, 
as seen through the microscope, consists of tiny flakes 
or spangles of metal, each flake forming a facet which 
reflects light. For this reason, gold paint made with it 
is more brilliant than that prepared from very fine 
bronze powders. These preparations known as "wash- 



390 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



ALUMINUM 
PAINT 



how to avoid 
"lapping" 



FINISHING 
OPEN AND 
CLOSE GRAIN 
WOODS 



able gold paints," have celluloid varnish as a medium. 
To make this varnish, prepare a saturated solution in 
acetone of one ounce of finely shredded transparent 
celluloid and make up to 20 ounces with amyl acetate. 
The quantity of flake bronze required will vary from 
one ounce to four ounces. Washable aluminum paint 
is prepared by substituting- the flake bronze powder 
of that metal for the gold bronze. The superiority 
of the celluloid varnish as a medium lies in the fact 
that it incloses the metallic particles in a coatine: that 
is impervious to air and water, and that it contains 
nothing that will act on the bronze. Celluloid varnish 
certainly appears to be the best gold paint medium yet 
discovered. 

Avoiding "laps" is one of the few hard things for 
an inexperienced person to learn about painting or 
finishing. A simple remedy for this trouble is to re- 
member that tables, dressers, sideboards or floors have 
natural "breaks" or panels which should be finished 
one at a time. For example, the side of a dresser will 
be paneled. Take the top panel and paint, enamel or 
varnish that part of the dresser. Then take the ad- 
joining panel, and so on, until the entire side is finished. 
Thus, if there are any laps, they will occur where the 
panels are joined and will not show. 

In finishing a floor, start at one corner and take two 
or three boards only. Finish just as wide a surface at 
a time as the arm naturally sweeps, and paint along 
the same two or three boards until the entire room has 
been crossed. Always work from the unfinished into 
the finished portion, instead of from the finished into 
the unfinished. 

The following woods are called open-grained woods : 
Walnut, ash, oak, butternut, chestnut, mahogany, 
prima vera or white mahogany. 

All of these woods must be filled with wood filler 
before they can be successfully varnished. Full in- 
structions are given under the various headings in this 
book. 

Close-grained woods do not need to be filled before 
varnishing. Some woods which come under this class 
are: Pine, birch, cypress, beech, maple, poplar or 



SPECIAL HINTS TO ARTISANS 391 

whitewood, hemlock, redwood, sycamore, cherry, gum- 
wood and Oregon fir. 

We would suggest that paraffine wax be applied to 
table tops with a large brush. The wax should be 
heated first — preferably in a double boiler, to avoid the 
danger of burning. In case the wax does not penetrate 
the wood satisfactorily, the surface may be rubbed 
over with a hot iron, which will melt the wax and allow 
it to be absorbed by the wood. taking heat 

To take heat stains out of wood, take three or four stains out 
thicknesses of blotting paper and lay on the spot, and qf wood 
place a hot smoothing iron on the paper. Have ready 
at hand some pieces of flannel, also folded and made 
quite hot. As soon as the iron has made the surface 
of the wood quite warm, remove the paper and go over 
the surface with a piece of parafl[ine, rubbing it hard 
enough to leave a coating of the substance. Then with 
one of the pieces of flannel rub the injured surface. 
Continue the rubbing, using freshly warmed cloths un- 
til the whiteness leaves the varnish or polish. The 
operation may have to be repeated once or twice, but 
it always succeeds at last. 

The cleansing of brushes should always be done 
with the liquid that was used for the solvent in the 
stain. Clean a brush that was used in an oil stain in 
benzole or naphtha, a spirit stain brush in wood alco- 
hol. Never use an alkali, such as sal soda or ammo- 
nia on brushes. If this becomes necessary use a very 
weak solution. To keep varnish brushes in condition, keeping 
bore a hole just below the small part of the handle, varnish 
about one-eighth inch in diameter and suspend the brushes in 
brushes into a pail so that the hair is immersed in tur- condition 
pentine, or some turpentine substitute such as tur- 
paline. Five or six brushes can be put in one pail by 
suspending them on a wire put through these holes. A 
cover can be made with a slot which will cover the pail 
and prevent excessive evaporation. These brushes will 
be ready for use on a moment's notice. They will al- 
ways be in condition, even though they are allowed to 
remain a week at a time unused. The hair of the brush 
will remam' moist as long as the bottom of the brush 
or end of the hair is partially immersed. 



CHAPTER LXXIV 

SMOKE STACKS AND METAL PRESERVATIVES 

THE trouble with smoke stack painting is that in 
most cases any cheap material is considered good 
enough. Ordinary coal tar is often employed or 
some cheap benzine asphaltum varnishes in which rosin smoke stack 
and benzine are predominant and coal tar takes the ^^^^'^ needs 
place of asphaltum. It should be considered that a '^^^"'^^ 
smoke stack is really exposed to very severe conditions, 
having heat passing through to the elements from 
without. It has to stand sun heat, warm and cold 
rains; the metal contracts and expands alternately, 
and it is obvious that only good elastic material can 
survive for any length of time under these conditions. 
The best paint for the purpose, therefore, is some- 
what of the nature of a good, black looking varnish 
made from genuine asphaltum, linseed oil and turpen- 
tine, entirely free from rosin, coal tar, benzine, etc. 
It should consist of 100 pounds of real gum asphaltum, 
Cuban or Trinidad, that is fused in the kettle with 20 
gallons kettle-boiled linseed oil and thinned with from 
20 to 25 gallons spirits of turpentine. The price asked 
by a varnish manufacturer for a varnish of this de- 
scription may be considered high, but its use will pay 
in the long run, as the cost of labor in painting a stack 
is the chief item. This asphaltum varnish will not 
blister if applied properly, but will bake on the metal the best 
as the heat passes through the stack, and it will prove stack paint 
elastic enough to stand all the conditions that it is sub- 
jected to. Figure the cost of painting a stack three 
times with cheap paint and the cost of painting it once 
only during that time with the higher priced asphaltum 
varnish and note the difference in favor of the latter 
method. 

Asphaltum varnish has been the accepted material 
for the painting of metallic surfaces. A German scien- 
tific journal gives a new suggestion which may be of 
interest to the factory owner. It recommends the use 



394 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



VARNISH FOR 

METALLIC 

SURFACES 



of red lead with raw linseed oil, and gives as a reason 
that steam pipes, owing to their often exposed posi- 
tions, should be painted red so as to denote danger. 
Heretofore, red lead has been employed by the plum- 
ber to put into the joints of pipe lines and mostly be- 
cause when mixed with linseed oil it will harden and 
form a cement. This, it has been found, is not due to 
the red lead, but rather to the yellow lead, which was 
largely present in the read lead as then manufactured. 
Present day red lead is now sold so pure that it works 
up into a good paint. It will dry hard and has with it 
all the qualities that the extreme oxidation can give it. 
Be it understood that there are three oxides of lead, 
viz.: Plumbago, or black oxide; litharge, or yellow 
oxide ; red lead, or red oxide. Each contains a molecule 
more of oxygen than the other. An ideal paint can now 
be made by using 33 pounds of red lead to seven and 
three-quarters pounds of linseed oil, which is equiv- 
alent to one gallon to one-third of a hundred of red lead. 
The pigment is first rubbed up with a very little oil, 
made into a thorough paste and then the balance of the 
oil added, when it will form a first-class paint, perhaps 
a trifle stouter than the ordinary white lead paint, but 
there is no difficulty in brushing it out nor in spreading 
it. The paint will flow well, soon obliterating brush 
marks after crossing it. In this present age, where we 
find that it pays to do things well, and once for all, the 
suggestion of our German scientist may be well to 
remember, 



GREAT 

ADVANCEMENT 
IN METHODS 



CHAPTER LXXV 

RUBBING AND POLISHING METHODS 

THE practical and universally used felt pad has 
supplanted all other materials for rubbing and 
polishing. Pads were formerly made by various 
methods, usually a ball of soft material such as old 
rags, or cloths of many kinds. The balls were covered 
with heavy woolen cloth. 

In earlier days the furniture factory owners were 
buying rags gathered from every conceivable source, 
clean and unclean. Today the rags used in the modern 
factory are thoroughly cleansed and disinfected by 
boiling, and by treatment in germicidal baths, and then 
selected for their qualifications for the purposes need- 
ed. Today when a factory purchases a bale of rags, 
the disease question is eliminated. 

When stains are wiped, rags are chiefly employed; 
they are cheaper than waste and they do not leave 
threads over the work. 

The felt pad is used as a sanding block, as well as 
for rubbing and polishing. In the rubbing down with 
pumice stone or in the polishing with rotten stone, the 
felt pad does the work with equal satisfaction. Some 
claim great qualifications for hair cloth, curled hair, 
burlap, steel wool and excelsior. There are occasions 
when their use may be successful, but unless the arti- various 
san is well acquainted with the peculiarities of each, 
much damage can be done in a few minutes suflficient 
to ruin the job. 

Hair cloth is rare, expensive and difl[icult to handle. 
It has a hard surface and should be discarded. Curled 
hair and burlap are good in Mission work; they take 
hold and will help to carry with each stroke consider- 
able powder but soon become matted, and the time 
spent in keeping such a pad in good condition will buy 
good felt. Steel wool is a "quick cutter," but it breaks 
up when. trimmings and corners are encountered, the 
little ends get under the trimmings, break off and then 



METHODS 
EMPLOYED 



396 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



FELT PAD IS 
BEST KIND 
OF POLISHER 



it takes a pair of forceps to get them out. Excelsior 
will do where there is nothing else, yet it is too brittle, 
breaks up and should be used only as a filler for a pad, 
using cloth to cover. 

It will be found that none of the materials can pro- 
duce anything like the results that the felt pad can, and 
the artisan who has not had experience with the various 
methods may rest assured there will be no loss by omit- 
ting their consideration. The few cases where burlap, 
curled hair or steel wool may be recommended would 
not warrant the purchase of them. 

Where rubbing and polishing is carried on without 
the aid of machinery, it probably is the most physically 
strenuous labor in the finishing department, especially 
true when all the rubbing is done by hand on large sur- 
faces. 

The work entails the continual use of the same 
muscles, practically all in one position, and it is only 




MATTISON RUBBING MACHINE 



recently that labor-saving devices have been offered 
that are really successful. Rubbing and polishing are 
usually carried on by the employment of felt pads. 
Where the work is water rubbed it is first coated, or 
rather pumice stone or rotten stone is sprinkled on 
the work; this is wet with water, and the rubbing 



RUBBING AND POLISHING METHODS 397 

process carried on in distinct straight strokes of uni- 
form pressure with the grain. Never is this to be done 
crosswise. The motion and direction of the stroke 
should be continually the same. The same is true in 
oil rubbing. 

In the polishing process the stroke should be with 
the grain but toward the finishing process can be done 
in a circular motion, such as in French polishing. The 
advent of the rubbing machine has been welcomed by 
many, and the following description of an accredited 
device will give the finisher a good idea of the pos- 
sibilities of a rubbing machine. 

The oscillating shoes, two in number, carry pads 
five and one-half by four and one-half inches in size. 
These pads are readily detachable by hand; no tools 
are necessary. Various qualities of felt, as well as 
sandpaper, can be used. The working parts are self- 
oiling and the whole machine is very quiet running. 
It is equipped with a cord and plug, and works from 
any lighting socket. While not in actual operation no 
electricity is consumed, as the switch is on the machine 
itself. The cost of current to operate is one cent per 
hour, if the rate you have for electricity is four cents 
per kilowatt hour. 

Wherever the work is, any such machine can be 
easily carried to it, attached to any nearby electric 
light socket, and at a turn of the switch on the machine, 
the two felt pads start oscillating at a rate of several 
hundred times a minute. The operator, by means of 
conveniently arranged side or top handles, guides the 
machine over the surface to be finished. The pads are 
so designed that every edge and corner will be treated 
as well as the center of the surface. The operator uses 
no pressure; the weight of the machine is the right 
weight to produce the highest grade of work. 

Wherever rubbing or polishing is done on stone or 
wood, with anv grade of felt or sandpaper, the machine 
shown here will do the work now done by hand or by 
air pressure, in a more efficient and more economical 
way. 

The finish is an important part in the appearance — 
a vital part in the selling price — and a large part of the 



NEVER RUB 
ACROSS GRAIN 



COST IS A 
MERE TRIFLE 



398 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



EVERY EDGE 
AND CORNER 
REACHED 



labor cost. Such machines as the one shown here will 
produce better polish and materially reduce cost of 
labor. Under the right conditions they will do many 
times the work of a man, and are easier and quicker 
to handle than the pneumatically operated rubbing 
machines. In addition to these economical advantages 
the machines produce exactly the same high grade 
work at four o'clock in the afternoon as they do at 
nine in the morning. There is no hard labor connected 
with operating this device — all that is necessary is for 
the operator to guide it over the surface. 

A good pad French polisher for hand polishing 
which will at once give you a finish, color and serve to 
fill your scratches on the woodwork is the following : 

Alcohol -8 ounces 

Shellac - V2 ounce 

Gum Benzoine - 1/4 ounce 

Poppy Oil — - 1/4 ounce 

Dissolve shellac and gum in alcohol in a warm place 
with frequent agitation, and when cold add the oil. 
Color with Bismark brown for mahogany, and for 
the brown woods reduce the Bismark brown and add 
more spirit black. For Antwerp use black and orange. 



CHAPTER LXXVI 



COMPARING COLOR SOLUTIONS 



THERE has come on the market an apparatus 
which must prove an immense convenience for the 
foreman finisher. This is the new colorimeter, 

an accurate, compact and 
universal instrument for 
comparing the colors of 
solutions in the minimum' 
amount of time and with 
the greatest possible ease. 
The Universal Colori- 
meter is based upon the 
principle of determining 
the value of an unknown 
solution by comparing its 
color with that of a stan- 
dard solution held in a 
wedge-shaped container, 
so that a depth of the stan- 
dard may be obtained cor- 
responding exactly in col- 
or with the color of the 
unknown. After the colors 
have been properly 
matched, the millimeter 
scale is read and the plot- 
tedgraph for the standard 
consulted. This graph 
shows the milligrams of 
the substance sought per 
cubic centimeter of the so- 
lution tested, giving im- 
mediate result. 
The instrument consists of a small cell for the un- 
known, mounted on a removable holder, and a standard 
wedge on a frame adjustable by rack and pinion to 
secure various depths of solution and, consequently. 




FOR TESTING 
SOLUTIONS 



THE UNIVERSAL COLORIMETER 
SHOWING OBSERVATION SLIT, 
SCALE, ADJUSTMENT, ETC. 



400 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



color. A millimeter scale with indicator for reading 

is mounted with the wedge. There is a large window 

HOW THE of ground glass which illuminates the field with prop- 

coLORiMETER erly diffused light. The cell and the wedge are so placed 

OPERATES in relation to a double prism as to give a field one-half 

of which shows the color of the wedge and the other 

half that of the unknown in the cell. There is no 




COLORIMETER SHOWING DOUBLE 
PRISM WITHIN THE CASE; CELL, 
WITH MOUNTING, FOR SOLUTION 
UNDER EXAMINATION. 



separating line between the two shades in the field, 
which is viewed through a small slit. 

The device is contained in a compact mahogany 



COMPARING COLOR SOLUTIONS 401 

box with front, back and interior finished in dull black. 

The accuracy attainable with this colorimeter will 
be apparent from these facts : There is no separating 
line between the two shades. The cell and the wedge 
have no curved surfaces. The readings are made 
through a small slit. The standard solution is abso- 
lutely durable, made up and calibrated once for all. 

The saving in time and the convenience are appar- 
ent from the following features: The apparatus is 
always ready for use. A standard solution does not 
have to be made up each time. Readings may be made 
in less than one minute. Washing between different 
determinations is reduced to the minimum. Only a 
small sample is needed. 

The variety of work to be done with the colorimeter 
will determine the method to be followed. Many times 
have hours upon hours been given to the matching of 
a stain; whereas, by the use of this colorimeter, the 
matching problem would have been a simple matter. 

Again, it brings us face to face with the progress 
of the scientific world and shows us how science aids 
the artisan if he will but equip himself. It shows 
the foreman where it will be to his advantage to know 
the metric system of weights and measures — ^the many 
ways that this little instrument can be employed in the 
color work in preparing stains will be self-evident from 
the description given. Accuracy is an important factor 
in the fixing of colors, and if this can be accomplished 
by a mathematical and scientific method, as claimed, a 
distinct gain has been made. 



HOW SCIENCE 

AIDS THE 
ARTISAN 



CHAPTER LXXVII 

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 

THE preparation of a stain, whether it be a water 
stain, a spirit stain, oil stain, or any kind of a 
stain, depends first upon the uniformity cf the 
product to be employed and, secondly, upon accuracy accuracy a 
in figuring the quantities for each batch. The careful p^™^ 
operator, after he has established a formula, will take ^^Q^^^^™ 
especial care not to vary in the least from the success- 
ful formula. It is better to make several batches than 
to make a multiple, and that I may be thoroughly 
understood, let me say that in this country several 
kinds of weights are employed and one may unwittingly 
ruin a batch of stain by the simple doubling or tripling 
of. the quantity. This is due to the various kinds of 
weights having a different number of ounces, different 
number of grains to the ounce. 

In purchasing a scale, you may have dram weights 
which have 60 grains to the dram. Now, eight drams 
should make the ounce, or 483 grains, but you will 
find that many of the ounces furnished with scales 
have only 437V2 grains. The larger your formula, the 
farther off your color will get. Above all things, know 
what your scales are made cut of as far as the weights 
are concerned, and build your formulas on the weights 
that you are using. But, better than all is the adoption confusion of 
of the metric system which is employed in all the several 
European countries. It is not to be expected that standards 
every foreman finisher is acquainted with the different 
points relative to the weights and measures, especially 
in this country, where there is no telling which kind of 
weights or measures the writer of a formula is refer- 
ring to. While we have the conventional gallon, and 
the trade ounce, very few know that chemicals are sold 
with 4371/2 grains to the ounce, whereas, most for- 
mulas are built up by the use of 480 grains to the 
ounce. The metric system of weights and measures 
alike, on the other hand, for simplicity's sake, can be 



404 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



METRIC SYSTEM 
SIMPLE 



WEIGHTS 
SHOULD BE 
STAMPED 



likened to our dollar. For example, a hundredth part 
of a dollar is a cent, a tenth is ten cents, and ten times 
ten make our dollar. The metric system is identical 
with this, differing only in the number of divisions, the 
smallest division being in thousandths in place of hun- 
dredths. To still further explain this, the unit is a 
gram, and its divisions are thousandths, hundredths, 
and tenths, known as millimeters, centimeters and deci- 
meters. The difference between the weights and meas- 
ures is only that one is grams, and the other is cubic 
centimeters. The advantage of any finishing room 
adopting these measures will immediately be apparent 
after they are in use. It is only the fear of making a 
change that causes many of the users of the old system 
to adhere to it. 

It is unfortunate that, through usage, we are using 
in this country a conglomeration of weights and meas- 
ures. This is due to the fact that, being a new country, 
we had to rely upon the old countries first for supplies 
and then for methods. In other countries it had been 
found that a universal unit was absolutely essential, 
and thus the adoption of the metric (decimal) systems. 
This has been adopted by the scientific laboratories, the 
chemical manufacturers and scientists. The drug 
manufacturers and apothecaries have their text-books 
which give both metric and apothecary weights and 
measures. 

A more bungling mess is hard to find than a pair 
of scales with weights — the weights having nothing to 
indicate what standard they are based upon. Were 
these stamped troy or avoirdupois or apothecary, it 
would then be easy to figure out the amount of grains 
or units. A dealer often cannot tell you what kind he 
is supplying. 

We have gone along in this way because, in many 
cases, it made little difference. But when one seeks to 
use formulas, the result of which depends upon accu- 
rate weighing, we should at least use the same weights 
as did the man who made the formula. 

A complete tabulation follows. A careful study and 
comparison will show the differences. It will show the 
necessity of knowing what kind of weights you have. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 405 

Some day we will have the decimal system estab- 
lished in this country. The schools have been teaching 
it for the past 30 years, but it is only lately that the 
pupil has been impressed with the value and absolute 
necessity of it being understood thoroughly. 

If the foreman finisher would adopt the metric sys- 
tem, to begin with, let him imagine it to be just like 
our coinage — calling the unit 1. If he takes one-tenth 
part, its decimal is one or .1 ; if he takes ten times the 
unit, it would be ten decimals, 10. Applying himself q^etwc^ 
to this thought — calling his units parts — ^he will shortly system 
be able to write his formula about as follows: 

Nigrosine A 10. 

Orange U — . 1. 

Acid Green 1 

Picric Acid .5 

Water - 1000.— 

which would mean, to him, ten parts of nigrosine, one 
part of orange, one-tenth part acid green, etc., and 
1,000 parts of water. Now, if he calls a part a dram 
(or 60 grains), it would be easy until he comes to 
weighing one-tenth of a dram. But he would have to 
know the number of grains to the dram. If 60, then 
the tenth part is six grains. If, on the other hand, 
he uses the metric system, he would have to select only 
the desired weights. 

It is mainly because we are all generally under the 
impression that the metric system is something fierce tqq many 
to master that we avoid it. On the other hand, pub- are afraid of 
lishers of formulas feel that the people avoid any for- metric system 
mula given in the metric system and, therefore, con- 
tinue in the old rut. 

Following is the schedule of weights and measures 
referred to ; 

U. S. Weights and Measures According to Existing 
Standards 

TROY WEIGHT 

Pound Ounces Pennyweights Grains Grams 

1 = 12 = 240 = 5,760 = 373.24 

1 = 20 = 480 = 31.10 

1 = 24 = 1.56 



406 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 









APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT 








Pound 


Ounces 




Drams 


Scruples 


Grains 




Grams 


1 


= 12 


= 


96 = 


288 = 


5,760 


= 


373.24 




1 


= 


8 = 


24 = 


480 




31.10 








1 = 


3 = 


60 


= 


1.89 










1 = 


20 
1 


= 


1.30 
.06 



The pound, ounce, and grain are the same as in Troy weight. 



Pound . 
1 



Ounces 

16 

1 



AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT 

Drams Grains (Troy) 



256 

16 

1 



7,000 
437.5 
27.34 



Grams 

453.60 

28.36 

1.77 



APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT 

20 Grains = 1 Scruple = 20 Grains 

3 Scruples = 1 Dram = 60 Grains 

8 Drams = 1 Ounce ^ 480 Grains 

12 Ounces = 1 Pound = 5,760 Grains 

FLUID MEASURE 

60 Minims = 1 Fluid Dram 

8 Drams = 1 Fluid Ounce 

16 ounces = 1 Pint 

8 Pints = 1 Gallon 

The above weights are usually adopted in formulas. 
All chemicals are usually sold by 

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT 

27 11-32 Grains = 1 Dram = 27 11-32 Grains 

16 Drams = 1 Ounce ^ 437>2 Grains 

16 Ounces = 1 Pound = 7,000 Grains 

Precious metals are usually sold by 

TROY WEIGHT 

24 Grains = 1 Pennyweight = 24 Grains 

20 Pennyweights = 1 Ounce = 480 Grains 

12 Ounces = 1 Pound = 5,760 Grains 

NOTE. — An ounce of metallic silver contains 480 grains, but an ounce of nitrate 

Qf silver contains only 4373^ grains. 



4 gills ^ 1 pint 
2 pints = 1 quart 
4 quarts = 1 gallon 



VOLUME— LIQUID 

Gills Pints 

32 = 8 



Gallon 

1 = 



Cub In. 

231 



EQUIVALENTS OF FLUID MEASURE IN METRIC 

Gallon Pints = Ounces Drams Minims Cubic Centimeters 

1 = 8 = 128 = 1,024 = 61,440 = 3,785.435 

1 = 16 = 128 = 7,680 = 473.179 

1 = 8 = 480 = 29.574 

1 = 60 = 3.697 

16 ounces, or a pint, is sometimes called a fluid pound. 

UNITED STATES FLUID MEASURE 



Gal. Pints Ounces Drams Mins. Cub. In. 

1 = 8 = 128 = 1,024= 61,440 231. 

1 = 16 = 128^ 7,680= 28.785 

1 = 8= 480= - 1.8047 

1 = 60 = 0.2256 



Grains Cub. CM. 

= 58,328.886 = 3,785.44 
= 7,291.1107 = 473.18 

= 455.6944 = 29.57 

= 56.9618 = 3.70 



IMPERIAL BRITISH FLUID MEASURE 

Gal. Pints Ounces Drams Mins. Cub. In. Grains Cub. CM. 

1 = 8 = 160 =1,280 = 76,800 = 277.27384 = 70,000 = 4,543.732 

1 :^ 20 = 160 = 9,600 = 34.65923 = 8,750 = 567.966 

1 = 8 = 480 = 1.73296 = 437.5 = 28.398 

1 = 60 = 0.21662 = 54.69 = 3.550 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 



407 



THE CONVERSION OF FRENCH (METRIC) INTO ENGLISH MEASURE 



1 
2 
3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

1000 



cubic centimeter : 
cubic centimeters : 
cubic centimeters 
cubic centimeters = 
cubic centimeters = 
cubic centimeters 
cubic centimeters ; 
cubic centimeters : 
cubic centimeters : 
cubic centimeters : 
cubic centimeters : 
cubic centimeters : 
cubic centimeters : 
cubic centimeters = 
cubic centimeters : 
cubic centimeters = 
cubic centimeters : 
cubic centimeters : 
cubic centimeters : 
cubic centimeters 



17 minims 

34 minims 

51 minims 

68 minims or 1 

85 minims or 1 

101 minims or 1 

118 minims or 1 

135 minims or 2 

152 minims or 2 

169 minims or 2 

338 minims or 5 

507 minims or 1 

676 minims or 1 

845 minims or 1 

1014 minims or 2 

1183 minims or 2 

1352 minims or 2 

1521 minims or 3 

1690 minims or 3 

1 liter = 34 fluid 



dram 

dram 

dram 

dram 

drams 

drams 

drams 

drams 

ounce 

ounce 

ounce 

ounces 

ounces 

ounces 

ounces 

ounces 

ounces 



8 mmims 

25 minims 

41 minims 

58 minims 

15 minims 

32 minims 

49 minims 

38 minims 
dram 27 minims 
3 drams 16 minims 
6 drams 5 minims 

dram 54 minims 

3 drams 43 minims 
6 drams 32 minims 

1 dram 21 minims 

4 drams 10 minims 
nearly, or 2J^ pints. 



THE CONVERSION OF FRENCH (METRIC) INTO ENGLISH WEIGHT 

The following table, which contains no error greater than one-tenth of a grain 
will suffice for most practical purposes: 

1 gram = 15 2 /5 grains. 

2 grams = 30 4 lb grains. 

3 grams = 46 1 /5 grains. 

4 grams = 61 4 /5 grains or 1 dram 1 4 /5 grain 

5 grams = 77 1 /5 grains or 1 dram 17 1 /5 grains 

6 grams = 92 3/5 grains or 1 dram 32 3 /5 grains 

7 grams = 108 grains or 1 dram 48 grains 

8 grams = 123 2 /5 grains or 2 drams 3 2 '5 grains 

9 grams = 138 4 /5 grains or 2 drams 18 4 5 grains 

10 grams = 154 2 /5 grains or 2 drams 34 2 5 grains 

11 grams = 169 4/5 grains or 2 drams 49 4 5 grains 

12 grams = ' 185 1 /5 grains or 3 drams 5 1 /5 grains 

13 grams = 200 3/5 grains or 3 drams 20 3 /5 grains 

14 grams = 216 grains or 3 drams 36 grains 

15 grams = 231 2/5 grains or 3 drams Tl 2 /5 grains 

16 grams = 247 grains or 4 dram.s 7 grains 

17 grams = 262 2 /5 grains or 4 drams 22 2 /5 grains 

18 grams = 277 4 /5 grains or 4 drams 37 4 5 grains 

19 grams = 293 1 /5 grains. or 4 drams 53 1 5 grains 

20 grams = 308 3/5 grains , or 5 drams 8 3 /5 grains 

30 grams = 463 grains or 1 dram 43 grains 

40 grams = 617 1 /5 grains or 10 drams 17 1 15 grains 

50 grams = 771 3/5 grains or 12 drams 51 3 '5 grains 

60 grams = 926 grains or 15 drams 26 grains 

70 grams = 1080 1 /5 grains.. or 18 drams 1 '5 grains 

80 grams = 1234 3 /5 grains or 20 drams 34 3 /o grains 

90 grams == 1389 grains ...or 23 drams 9 grains 

100 grams = 1543 1 /5 grains or 25 drams 43 1 /5 grains 

1000 grams = 1 kilogram -^--^ 32 oz., 1 dr., 12 2=5 gr. 

Metric System of Weights and Measures 

MEASURES OF VOLUME 



Denominations and Values 



Equivalents in Use 



Names 


Liters 


Cubic Measures 


Dry Measure 


Wine Measure 


Kiloliter 










or stere 


1,000 


1 cu. meter 


1,308 cu. yards 


264.17 gallons 


Hectoliter 


100 


1 10th cu. meter 


2 bu.and3.35 
pecks 


26.417 gallons 


Dekaliter 


10 


10 cu. decimeters 


9.08 quarts 


2.6417 gallons 


Liter 


1 


1 cu. decimeter 


.908 quarts 


1.0567 quarts 


Deciliter 


1-10 


1 10th cu. decimeter. 


6.1023 cu. inches 


.845 gill 


Centiliter 


1-100 


10 cu. centimeters 


.6102 cu. inch 


.338 fluid oz. 


Milliliter 


1-1000 


1 cu. centimeter 


.061 cu. inch 


.27 fl. drm. 



408 


PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 


WEIGHTS 


Den 


oirinations 


and Values 




Equivalents 
in Use 




Number 
of Grams 


Weight of Volume of Water 
at its Maximum Density 


Avoirdupois 
Weight 



Millier or Tonneau 

Quintal _ 

Myriagram 

Kilogram or Kilo.... 

Hectogram 

Dekagram 

Gram 

Decigram 

Centigram 

Milligram 



1.000,000 
100,000 
10,000 
1,000 
100 
10 
1 
1-10 
1-100 
1-1000 



1 cu. meter 
1 hectoliter 

10 liters 
1 liter 
1 deciliter 

10 cu. cent'rs. 
1 cu. cen. 
1-lOth of a cu. cen. 

10 cu. mill'rs. 
1 cu. mill'r. 



2204.6 pounds 
220.46 pounds 
22.046 pounds 
2.2046 pounds 
3.5274 ounces 
.3.527 ounce 
15.432 grains 
1.5432 grain 
.1543 grain 
.0154 grain 



For measuring surfaces, the square dekameter is used under the term of Are; 
the hectare, or 100 ares, is equal to about 2)2 acres. The unit of capacity is the cubic 
decimeter or Liter, and the series of measures is formed in the same way as in the 
case of the table length. The cubic meter is the unit of measure for solid bodies and is 
termed Stere. The unit of weight is the Gram which is the weight of one cubic centi- 
meter of pure water weighed in a vacuum at the temperature of 4 deg. Cent, or 39.2 
deg. Fahr., which is about its temperature of maximum density. In practice, the term 
cubic centimeter, abbreviated c. c, is generally used instead of milliliter, and cubic 
meter instead of kiloliter' 



CHAPTER LXXVIII 

STAIN FORMULAS 

THE following formulas have been given in ma- 
terials of uniform strength which can be found 
in the market. It must be realized that the entire 
value of stain formulas depends upon the uniformity 
of the ingredients used, a uniformity that extends into 
the percentage of color-value of the aniline employed. 
The formulas given will produce the correct con- 
ventional shade and method of finish. It, therefore, 
will be seen that any material difference in the color- 
value or shade of an aniline employed will not attain 
these results. Realizing that there may be occasional 
difficulty in obtaining colors identical with those em- 
ployed in the production of these formulas, the pub- 
lishers have arranged to furnish gratis, upon receipt 
of sufficient return postage, sample of such color that 
will enable the artisan to compare materials at hand 
and to provide himself with identical goods. Note 
final chapter. 

ANTIQUE MAHOGANY. 

FORMULA: 

Mahogany Brown 2 ounces 

Mahogany Red 1 ounce 

Potassium Bichromate Vz ounce 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

Apply two coats and proceed in the usual manner with 
the finish. Color of filler usually very dark. Under 
"Antique" we have many shades, all of which can be 
produced from above ingredients. 

AUSTRIAN OAK. 

Austrian oak, like Hungarian oak, is not a general finish, the 
procedure being the same as for producing Baronial oak. 



410 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

ANTWERP OIL STAIN. 

FORMULA: 

Oil Black 4 ounces 

Oil Yellow (light) 6 drams 

Oil Red (bright) 80 grains 

Boiled Oil , 1 pint 

Turpentine 1 pint 

Naphtha 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

Cut the color material in the turpentine by heating on a 
water bath, then add the oil. When cool add naphtha, 
using same to rinse dish in which original solution was 
made. One coat of this followed with a coat of white shel- 
lac. Filler to be black and put over the shellac coat. Then 
give a second coat of shellac and two coats of white var- 
nish. Rub flat. 

BARONIAL OAK "A." 
FORMULA: 

Brown Mahogany Stai.i Powder V2 ounce 

Jet Black Nigrosine 30 grains 

Walnut Crystals Powder 20 grains 

Bichromate of Potash .,.. 1 dram 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

Dissolve stain powders in warm water and apply first 
coat freely. This coat may constitute the sponging coat. 
Sand smoothly and apply second coat of same stain. Do 
not sand this coat but give a good coating of white shel- 
lac, or if preferred, white japan. When dry, wax. This 
finish is not filled. 

BARONIAL OAK "B." 

Brown Mahogany Stain Powder 1 ounce 

Nigrosine Jet Black 1 dram 

Bichromate of Potash 1 dram 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

Dissolve stain powder and after the wood is sponged, 
apply stain. Do not wipe but see that same is well 
brushed out. When dry sand lightly and then coat with 
white shellac, and sand with 00 sandpaper. Give two 
coats of some good flat varnish or wax. 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 411 

ANTWERP OAK. 

FORMULA: 

Potassium Bichromate, powdered 1 part 

Sap Brown, powdered 4 parts 

Jet Black Nigrosine 4 parts 

Napthol Black Vz part 

Each part may represent a dram, an ounce, or a pound, 
depending' upon the quantity of stain desired. 

YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 413 

BELGIAN OAK, 

FORMULA: 

Walnut Brown Crystals, ground 4 ounces 

Bichromate of Potash 1 ounce 

Nigrosine Jet Black 4 ounces 

Naphthol Black Vz ounce 

Mahogany Brown % ounce 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

Dissolve powders in hot water. Apply first coat, sanding 
same without cutting through stain coat. Then give 
second coat of stain and when dry, without sanding, 
apply solution of oil black made by cutting one ounce of 
oil black aniline in one quart of white japan. This can 
be best accomplished by heating turpentine on a water 
bath and it dissolving the oil black. Then while warm 
add to the japan. When this black coat is thoroughly 
dry, wax. 

BOG OAK. 

FORMULA : 

Sap Brown or Walnut Brown 1 ounce 

Bichromate of Potash 2 drams 

Nigrosine Jet Black 1 ounce 

Mahogany Brown Stain Powder 1 dram 

Water 4 gallons 

DIRECTIONS: 

Apply first coat of stain, thoroughly brushing well into 
wood. Sand well, and apply second coat but do not sand 
second coat. Fill with dark filler colored by using two 
parts of Van Dyke brown and one part of drop black. 

BUTLER OAK. 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Catechu % Pound 

Lye Vz Pound 

Water 2 gallons 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Black P. B 135 grains 

Naphthol Yellow 12 grains 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

After preparing first coat as per formula, use one ounce 



414 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

of the solution to ten ounces of water. With this stain 
the wood, sand and apply second coat. Then fill with a 
black filler, this to be a natural filler colored with drop 
black in oil. Shellac using white shellac, sand lightly and 
give two coats of light varnish. Rub dull with oil. For 
Butler oak, nothing serves better than an oil rub finish. 

CATHEDRAL OAK (Old). 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Bichromate of Potash ,. 2 drams 

Naphthol Yellow 1 dram 

Water 1 gallon 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Bichromate of Potash 1 dram 

Sap Brown or Walnut Crystals 4 drams 

Jet Black Nigrosine 4 drams 

Naphthalene Black V2 dram 

Water 4 gallons 

DIRECTIONS: 

Apply first coat freely. This may also constitute the 
sponging coat. Sand carefully and apply second coat. 
Shellac and varnish, rub dull to dead finish. 

CATHEDRAL OAK (New). 
FORMULA: 

Sap Brown or Walnut Crystals 2 ounces 

Black P. B 14 ounce 

Naphthol Scarlet 15 grains 

Bichromate of Potash 1 dram 

Water 3 quarts 

DIRECTIONS: 

For the first coat, which may also be the sponging coat, 
dissolve two drams of Lewis' or Babbitt's lye, or car- 
bonate of potash, in a gallon of water. Then when dry, 
sand carefully. Apply stain when dry and see that work 
is well smoothed. Then apply solution made of three 
parts boiled oil, one part asphaltum varnish, six parts 
naphtha. Clean and rub dry with rags or waste. The 
next day shellac and wax. 

CHERRY STAIN ON BIRCH. 

FORMULA: 

Mahogany Brown 21^^ ounces 

Naphthol Scarlet 1 ounce 

Potassium Bichromate V^ ounce 

Water 8 gallons 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



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PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 417 

DIRECTIONS: 

Prepare the work in usual manner, that is, as if stain is 
to be used on cherry wood and apply the stain, wiping it 
off. If on birch, maple or other substitute woods, apply 
thoroughly and brush out well. No filler is required. 
Little gTain will be raised. On high grade work sand 
before shellacing. On fixtures, etc., do this after the 
shellac coat has been applied. Use equal parts of white 
and orange shellac. Finish as required. 

CHERRY STAIN ON PINE 

FORMULA: 

Mahogany Brown 2 ounces 

Naphthol Scarlet 10 ounces 

Potassium Bichromate - 1 ounce 

Water 6 gallons 

DIRECTIONS: 

This will produce a good penetrating cherry stain devoid 
of that scarlet shade which is often found in prepared 
cherry stains and absolutely incorrect. The sanding can 
be done after the shellac coat has been applied. 

CHIPPENDALE ACID STAIN. 

FORMULA: 

Black P. B 1 ounce 

Bichromate of Potash 2 ounces 

Mohagany Red 60 grams 

Water 3 gallons 

DIRECTIONS: 

Give one coat of stain filler colored with Van Dyke, burnt 
sienna and rose pink. Hold to a decided brown shade. 
Use brown shellac and white or very light colored varnish. 

CHINESE TEAK. 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Mahogany Red Stain Powder 4 ounces 

Naphthol Yellow 1 ounce 

Potassium Bichromate '. V2 ounce 

Water 3 gallons 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Antwerp Stain Powder (1st formula) 4 ounces 

Water 1 gallon 



418 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

DIRECTIONS: 

Apply the first coat as prepared according to the above 
formula, and when dry, sand the work thoroughly. Then 
apply the second coat, but do not sand. 
Fill with a filler which has been colored so it has almost 
a black appearance with three-fourths part of drop black, 
ground in oil, and one-fourth part Van Dyke brown, 
ground in oil. Clean the filler off well, and give one coat. 



DUTCH BROWN OAK. 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Mahogany Red Stain Powder 4 ounces 

Naphthol Yellow 2 ounces 

Potassium Bichromate 1 ounce 

Water 3 gallons 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Ground Walnut Crystals 6 ounces 

Mahogany Brown Stain Powder 5 ounces 

Water 2 gallons 

DIRECTIONS: 

Dissolve the first coat in the water. This may be applied 
freely, and thus serve as a sponging coat, as well as the 
first stain coat. Sand down thoroughly, then apply the 
second coat. In preparing the second coat, boiling water 
should be used, and the stain allowed to cool and settle. 
Then pour off the clear liquid, and strain the last liquor 
through a few folds of cheese cloth. Apply and sand very 
lightly. Fill with a filler colored quite dark with Van 
Dyke brown, ground in oil. Shellac, varnish and rub dull. 
If a cheaper finish is desired, three coats of flat finish 
may be used. 



DRIFT WOOD (Old Method). 

FORMULA: 

Unslacked Lime 5 pounds 

Water 2 gallons 

DIRECTIONS: 

After the lime has slacked, pour off clear liquid and give 
the work a thorough sponging. Smooth down with sand- 
paper and coat with wax into which is sifted carbonate 
of zinc and just enough dry drop black to give a slight 
gray tone. The wax should be thin so as to spread easily, 
to be rubbed well out. When dry, give second coat of wax. 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



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PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 421 

DRIFT WOOD (New Method) 
FORMULA: 

Sulphate of Iron dried 60 grains 

Black P. B 14 ounce 

Oxalic acid 60 grains 

Water 3 gallons 

DIRECTIONS: 

To prepare drift wood finish (usually on oak) omit the 
sponging coat, using the stain on the sanded work. After 
the stain has stood 12 hours in a well ventilated room, 
sand down well. Put a small amount of zinc white in the 
wax, just enough to give the pores a grayish tint, but not 
to fill them. Then a second coat of wax which is rubbed 
to polish. 

EARLY ENGLISH (Windsor) 

FORMULA: 

Picric acid 4 ounces 

Nigrosine Jet Black, H. & M 6V2 pounds 

Mahogany Brown 1^/4 pounds 

Of this powder, usually three ounces to the gallon of water 
produces the shade desired. Finishing procedure same as above, 
although many makers add a little Van Dyke brown to their 
filler. 

EARLY ENGLISH (Spirit Stain) 
FORMULA: 

Spirit Black 4 ounces 

Auramine V2 ounce 

Malachite Green Va ounce 

Wood Alcohol - 1 gallon 

A spirit stain is not as satisfactory a way to produce Early 
English. The pores are not open and the amount of filler that 
the wood will take on is not sufficient to produce the effect. 

EARLY ENGLISH (Oil Stain) 
FORMULA: 

Oil Black 1^/4 pounds 

Oil Yellow 2y2 ounces 

Oil Brown V2 ounce 

Linseed Oil % pint 

Turpentine 1 quart 

Naphtha 1 gallon 

This mixture is prepared as follows: Heat the turpentine 



422 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

on a water bath and in it melt the colors. Then, when melted, 
add the linseed oil and when cool add the naphtha. 

This gives a base for producing Early English. It must be 
thinned with gasoline or benzo, however, to produce the desired 
depth of color. The stain must be allowed to stand until thor- 
oughly dry before an attempt be made to fill the work. The same 
ingredients can be cut by the use of benzo in place of the hot tur- 
pentine, and if it is desired to increase the penetrating powers, 
add four ounces of acetone to each gallon of stain. This will 
greatly facilitate the binding of the stain into the wood. 



EARLY ENGLISH 

FORMULA: 

Nigrosine, Jet Black, soluble in water 1 pound 

Water, hot 7 gallons 

To produce greenish shade: 

Dissolve Picric Acid 1 ounce 

Water or Alcohol 12 ounces 

DIRECTIONS: 

Add to the nigrosine solution as much of the picric acid 
solution as required to produce the shade desired. Sponge 
the wood and sand. Then apply stain, giving one good 
coat. When dry, sandpaper, dust and fill with black filler. 
Any good natural filler may be colored black by adding 
drop black. Early English may be shellaced, varnished 
and rubbed flat, or flat finish may be put over the shellac 
coat. Some prefer to wax it. 

EARLY ENGLISH (One Coat) 

FORMULA: 

Sulphur Brown "M" 2 ounces 

Black P. B 4 ounces 

Lye M ounce 

Water 1 gal. 3 qts. 

DIRECTIONS: 

After work has been sponged and sanded, apply thor- 
oughly. When dry, sand lightly with finishing paper, 
sand just enough to remove the fibers. Prepare the filler 
by coloring natural filler with equal parts of Van Dyke 
brown, ground in oil, and drop black ground in oil. After 
filling, let work stand 24 hours. Then apply shellac, using 
two parts of white to one part of orange. Sand the 
shellac lightly and coat with flat Mission finish or wax. 
If better finish is desired the Mission can be oil rubbed. 



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PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



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FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 425 

EARLY ENGLISH (Standard) 

FORMULA: 

Walnut Crystals (ground) 2 ounces 

Black P. B 1 ounce 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

First sponge the wood with a solution of one-half ounce 
of lye to a gallon of water. Sand and apply the stain. 
Fill with a dark filler colored with drop black, ground in 
oil. Then apply one coat of white shellac. Sand with 00 
sandpaper and give one or two coats of white varnish and 
rub dull. Some finish in wax, others prefer flat finish, 
but Early English proper should be finished with varnish. 

EARLY ENGLISH (Oil Stain) 
FORMULA: 

Oak Stain No. 53 H. & M 1 ounce 

Oak Stain No. 37 H. & M % ounce 

Benzole 3 ounces 

Oil of Mirbane i/4 ounce 

Japan 3 ounces 

Naphtha 16 ounces 

Turpentine 2 ounces 

DIRECTIONS: 

Cut the stain powders with the benzole and slowly add 
turpentine until the color is all dissolved, or heat the tur- 
pentine on water bath and cut the color while turpentine 
is hot. Next add the japan and as the mixture cools, add 
other ingredients. 

After the work is smoothed and ready for stain, dust it 
off carefully and apply stain. Do not fill till second day. 
Filler to be colored with two parts Van Dyke brown and 
one part drop black. Let filler dry well, then coat with 
shellac two parts white shellac and one part orange. Sand 
lightly and coat with flat varnish or flat Mission finish. 

ENGLISH OAK 

FORMULA: 

Walnut Crystals ground 10 ounces 

Lye, such as Babbitt's V^ ounce 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

It will be noticed that this is very nearly the same as 
walnut stain, the only differing feature being the filler 
which should have the Van Dyke brown color and the 



426 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

final finish, which should be correct. It is a high polish, 
usually produced with two coats of shellac and varnish 
polished. 

EBONY STAIN 

FORMULA: 

Solid Extract of Logwood 3 ounces 

Water ^ gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

Tie the broken pieces of logwood extract in a cotton cloth 
and place in the water which should be allowed to boil 
until the liquid is reduced one half. Remove the cloth 
which will contain but a small amount of fibrous inert 
matter. To the warm solution of logwood, add two-thirds 
ounce of powdered sal soda or one-third ounce of dried 
carbonate of soda. Stir this gradually into the warm 
solution and remove the resultant foam. Should the 
solution be cooled, then heat again and apply to the wood 
or if convenient, dip the wood. If first operation does not 
peneti'ate thoroughly, repeat the operation. After the 
wood has dried, apply a hot solution of bichromate of pot- 
ash or soda, using one and two-thirds ounces to the quart 
of water. A deep rich color will result. For small ar- 
ticles, the dipping process is recommended. This produces 
a much deeper penetration than any other known method. 

The following formulas will produce excellent blacks and 
being made up of material to be found in any market are of 
value because the black color can be changed so as to produce 
many of the modern stains by the admixture of such colors as 
red, yellow and orange. 

FORMULA No. 1: 

Logwood Chips 6 pounds 

Powdered Verdigris Vz pound 

Copperas % pound 

Bruised Nutgalls 4 ounces 

Water 10 gallons 

Boil for two hours, then add one gallon of vinegar, and 
boil for one more hour. 

FORMULA No. 2: 

Logwood Chips \^ pound 

Pearl Ash 1 ounce 

Boiling Hot Water 2 quarts 

Apply hot to the wood. 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



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YOUR OWN FORMULAS » 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 429 

FORMULA B: 

Logwood Chips ^ pound 

Verdigris V2 ounce 

Copperas % ounce 

Boil in two quarts of water. Second coat. 

FORMULA No. 3: 

Logwood Extract 1 pound 

Water 3 gallons 

Copperas I pound 

Boil for two hours. 

FORMULA No. 4: 

Logwood Extract 1 pound 

Copperas 1% pounds 

Powdered Nutgalls 2 pounds 

Water 5 gallons 

Boil for two hours. 

FORMULA No. 5: 

Nigrosine , 4 ounces 

Acetic Acid 4 ounces 

Water 1 gallon 

Apply two coats. 

EARLY ENGLISH (Antique) 

Sometimes called Royal Early English. 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Walnut Crystals V2 ounce 

Mahogany Brown 1 dram 

Lye (Carbonate of Potash) % ounce 

Water 2% gallons 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Tincture of Iron V2 ounce 

Black P. B % ounce 

Walnut Crystals ^/4 ounce 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

The first coat should be applied thoroughly, as it con- 
stitutes the sponging coat. When dry, sand it well and 
apply second coat. When dry, give a thin coat of shellac 
and sand lightly, then fill. Filler to be almost black, just 
enough Van Dyke brown to be used to take on the coal 
black shade. Let stand 48 hours and give one coat of 



430 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

shellac, using three parts of white and one part of 
orange. Sand and wax or give good flat finish. 

FOREST GREEN 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Acid Green "E" 2V4 ounces 

Water 1 gallon 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Picric Acid % ounce 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

The wood to be prepared in usual manner. First coat 
applied and sanded lightly. Then apply second coat. 
This serves as a mordant. After this is dry, fill with a 
filler which is colored with chrome green and drop black. 
Some add a bit of brown. Shellac and finish to suit. 

FLANDERS (Stain Method) 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Bichromate of Potash 2 ounces 

Caustic Soda (stick) 1 ounce 

Water 1 gallon 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Nigrosine, Jet Black 2 ounces 

Sulphate of Iron, dried 1 dram 

Acid Brown 2 ounces 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

The first coat constitutes sponging coat as well as stain 
coat. It is sanded thoroughly, and the second coat is 
applied. When dry, coat without sanding with a mix- 
ture of two parts japan, two parts boiled oil and four 
parts naphtha. Let this dry well, and rub down when 
dry. Properly speaking, Flanders should not be filled. 
If, however, it is requested, color your filler with equal 
parts of drop black and burnt umber. Then shellac. If 
not filled, use repeated coats of the oil mixture and rub 
until a good, smooth matte surface is obtained. 

FUMED OAK "A" 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Bichromate of Potash 4 ounces 

Carbonate of Potash 1 ounce 

Water 5 quarts 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



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PROBLEMS OF TflE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 433 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Blue, Extra Blue 1 ounce 

Scarlet 2R 60 grains 

Water 2 gallons 

DIRECTIONS: 

After applying the first coat of stain, let the work stand 
over night, then sand smooth, and coat with a mixture of 
one part boiled oil and three parts naphtha. To each 
quart of this oily mixture add one ounce (liquid measure) 
of japan drier. 

The following day, stain over this coat, which by this 
time should have thoroughly penetrated the wood, with 
the second coat. If there is any difficulty in making the 
stain take hold, rub the spot with rags, and then go over 
again with the stain. Do not sand this coat, but go over 
the work with japan drier to which one pint of turpen- 
tine has been added to each gallon. See that a uniform 
covering is produced. When it is thoroughly dry, finish 
in wax. 

FUMED OAK "B" 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Bichromate of Potash % ounce 

Carbonate of Potash, or Soda if dried % ounce 

Water 1 gallon 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Nigrosine, Jet Black % ounce 

Walnut Brown Powder 4 ounces 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

Apply the first coat, and when dry, sandpaper, dust off. 
Then apply a mixture of one part of boiled oil and five 
parts of naphtha. Allow to stand not less than six hours, 
rubbing off the oil spots with rags, and then apply second 
coat. If oil spots show through the stain, wipe them off 
well with waste or rags, and stain again. When this coat 
is thoroughly dry, coat with white shellac. If any wood 
fibers show through the shellac coat, they can easily be 
cut off by going over the shellac coat carefully with sand- 
paper. In this operation, however, care should be taken 
not to cut through the shellac. Dust off, and apply wax. 

FUMED OAK "C" 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Bichromate of Potash 2 ounces 

Orange Y 30 grains 

Naphthol Yellow 30 grains 

Water 1 gallon 



434 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Scarlet 3RL i^ ounce 

Nigrosine, Jet Black 3% ounces 

Naphthol Yellow 2 drams 

Water 1 gallon. 

DIRECTIONS: 

Apply the first coat in the usual manner, and sand lightly. 
Dust off, apply the second coat, and, without sanding, 
give a coat of white shellac. When this is thoroughly 
dry, sand it smooth, and apply a second coat of very thin 
shellac. Then finish in wax. 

FUMED OAK ENGLISH 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Orange Y 30 grains 

Mahogany Red 10 grains 

Water 16 ounces 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Picric Acid 10 grains 

Nigrosine 3 grains 

Iron Sulphate (crystals) 60 grains 

Sulphate of Soda 60 grains 

Water 1 quart 

DIRECTIONS: 

It is not necessary to sponge the wood after the original 
sanding. Apply a good coat of the first coat stain. Sand 
smooth and then apply second coat. This may be varied 
in strength according to the depth of color desired. This 
fumed oak is sometimes called Limbert's No. 4 and is of a 
grayish color. It has none of the deep brown shades 
typical of regular fumed oak and looks very much like 
the wood when it first comes from the fuming box before 
any oil has been applied. The finish is made the same as 
in any fumed oak with the exception of shellac. This 
must be white shellac, and, if necessary, give a shade of 
gray by adding a few grains of spirit black to each pint 
of shellac. 

FUMED OAK OIL 

FORMULA: 

Oil Black 1 ounce 

Oil Brown 30 grains 

Oil Mahogany % ounce 

Benzole 1 pint 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



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PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOyi 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 437 

DIRECTIONS: 

These dyes, oil soluble anilines will produce a good fumed 
oak stain, and will, if handled carefully, produce a quick . 
finish job. The addition of a half ounce of acetone will 
help to penetrate and hold the stain in place. The shellac 
must be applied quickly without much brushing. 

FUMED OAK OIL 

FORMULA: 

Gum Asphaltum 3 ounces 

Oil Black 3 ounces 

Oil Brown 3 drams 

Benzole 42 ounces 

White Varnish 5 ounces 

Naphtha 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

Put the color materials in a bottle and add the benzole, 
agitating occasionally until the colors are cut. Then add 
the naphtha and the varnish. It takes considerable time 
to cut the colors; therefore, the bottle is recommended to 
avoid the evaporation of benzole. Apply the stain, taking 
care to avoid laps and brush marks. When dry, apply 
shellac and wax or give two coats* of wax substitute. Be 
sure the shellac coat covers well to keep air off stain. 

FUMED OAK OIL STAIN (A) 

FORMULA: 

Oil Oak Stain No. 37 H. & M % ounce 

Oil Oak Stain No. 41 H. & M Ve, ounce 

Benzole 1 V2 ounce 

Oil Mirbane 1 dram 

Japan 4 ounces 

Turpentine i ounces 

Naphtha 16 ounces 

DIRECTIONS: 

Cut the colors in benzole. Then add the turpentine and 
other ingredients. The wood must be well sanded and 
dusted before stain is applied. Then give one coat of 
orange shellac. If sanding is necessary, use the very 
finest sandpaper. Finish with wax or a good flat varnish. 

FUMED OAK OIL STAIN 

For Printed Woods. 
FORMULA: 

Burnt Umber ground in oil 1 pound 



438 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

Turpentine 1 quart 

Japan 1 quart 

Naphtha bVz quarts 

Oil Fumed Oak Stain (A) equal measure IV2 quarts 

DIRECTIONS: 

See that the umber is thoroughly mixed with the liquids. 
Then add the fumed oak (A) stain. Keep the mixture 
well stirred when applying. When dry, shellac, using 
orange shellac which is colored with a little Bismark 
brown to give it a reddish tint. When dry, sandpaper 
lightly and wax or give a coat of flat varnish. 

FUMED OAK— G. R. M. STANDARD 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Bichromate of Potash % ounce 

Carbonate of Potash or Soda, if dried V2 ounce 

Water 1 gallon 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Acid Brown 2 drams 

Sap Brown, or Walnut Brown Powdered.. 2 ounces 

Nigrosine, Jet Black 1 ounce 

Naphthol Yellow 1 dram 

Sulphur Brown M 1 oz. 6 dr. 

Of this powdered mixture, use three and one-half ounces 
to the gallon of water. 

DIRECTIONS: 

Apply the first coat thoroughly, and let it stand at least 
six hours. Sand and dust off, then oil with a mixture one 
part japan drier, two parts of boiled oil, and five parts 
of naphtha. Wipe off thoroughly, and when dry apply 
the second coat, taking care that the stain covers well, 
and that no oil spots are visible. Coat with white shellac 
and wax. In place of waxing, some prefer to use a flat 
finish, or a substitute wax finish as made by the varnish 
houses. 

FUMED OAK No. 5 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Bichromate of Potash 2 ounces 

Orange Y 30 grains 

Naphthol Yellow 30 grains 

Water 1 gallon 



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PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 441 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Scarlet 3RL % ounce 

Nigrrosine, Jet Black 3 ounces 

Walnut Brown, Powdered 1 ounce 

Naphthol Yellow 2 drams 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

Apply the first coat, let stand over night, sand lightly, 
and apply second coat. Shellac and wax. 

FUMED OAK WITH STAIN POWDERS 

DIRECTIONS: 

The first coat is made with the idea of penetrating the 

wood, and producing the fumed oak effect in the flake. 

The second coat is to give the color. 

The oil coat is intended to give a depth of color, and a 

transparency which is produced in fumed oak when made 

in the fuming box. 

Different shades are possible with any of the foregoing 

formulas by first increasing the amount of stain material 

used to the gallon of water; second, the color effect is 

under control by increasing or decreasing the amount of 

blacks, browns and reds used, so that any shade of fumed 

oak can be produced at pleasure. 

For blending, evening up, see general directions under 

Blending Mixtures. 

FUMED OAK SPECIAL 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Pyrogallic Acid 1 ounce 

Tannic Acid V^ ounce 

Water 1 gallon 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Carbonate of Potash 8 ounces 

Bichromate of Potash 2 ounces 

Stronger Ammonia (26°) 4 ounces 

Copper Solution 4 ounces 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

To prepare second coat, dissolve the carbonate of potash 
in the water. Dissolve the bichromate. Then add the 
copper and ammonia in this manner: Prepare the copper 
solution by dissolving four ounces of copper sulphate in 
one quart of water. Powder the copper sulphate and use 
boiling water. When this solution is cool, take four 
ounces and add to it four ounces of ammonia. When first 



442 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

adding: this ammonia, a white precipitate is formed, which 
will redissolve as ammonia is added. If the four ounces 
of ammonia do not completely dissolve this white precipi- 
tate, then continue to add ammonia until a deep blue 
solution is obtained. Add this then to the potash solution. 
When a clear olive colored solution is obtained, which is 
the second coat, that does the changing of color on the 
first coat. Coat with shellac, half orange and half white, 
sandpaper and wax, or use one of the now popular pre- 
pared wax substitutes. 

Blending may be done in the shellac coat according to the 
directions under "General Instructions for Blending." 



OTHER FUMED OAK SPECIALS 

Herewith are given second coats over pyrogallic and tannic 
acid coat. 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Water (Hot) 3 gallons 

Nigrosine, Jet Black 1% ounces 

Carbonate of Potash 12 ounces 

Bichromate of Potash 6 ounces 

26 degrees Ammonia 12 ounces 

Add when solution is cool or 

Water (Hot) 1 gallon 

Carbonate of Potash 8 ounces 

Bichromate of Potash 2 ounces 

Copper Solution 8 ounces 

DIRECTIONS: 

Dissolve four ounces sulphate of copper in one quart of 
hot water; to this add one quart of 26 degree ammonia. 
At first it will precipitate and form a white cloud. Keep 
on adding ammonia till a dark blue solution is obtained, 
then of this dark blue solution add eight ounces (one-half 
pint) to above gallon. Then add jet black nigrosine till 
desired shade is obtained; one-half ounce to gallon is 
recommended. 

For toning light streaks and to even up, use following in 
shellac coat: Dissolve enough Bismark brown in one pint 
of wood alcohol to make a reddish color, then add equal 
quantity of white shellac. Make same kind of solution 
with spirit black, then mix these two shellac solutions to 
make the brown fumed oak shade when applied to last 
stain coat. Sand lightly and wax. 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



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PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 445 

FURNITURE CITY WAX. 

Ready for use. 
FORMULA: 

Japanese Wax 10% pounds 

Turpentine 14 pounds 

DIRECTIONS: 

Melt the wax and when about to cool, add the turpentine. 
It will be noticed that no beeswax enters into this wax. 

GRAY MAPLE. 

FORMULA: 

Jet Black 1 dram 

Orange Y 5 grains 

Sulphate of Iron 1 ounce 

Sulphate of Soda 4 ounces 

Water 2 gallons 

DIRECTIONS: 

Apply one coat on the sanded work. Do not sponge the 
wood. Brush the stain well into the wood and let it stand 
at least over night as the action is slow. The strength 
of the stain may be varied to produce the various shades 
of gray. Sand down with very fine sandpaper. Do not 
use any shellac-finish with lacquer or paraffine wax. 

GRAY MAPLE— DARK 

DIRECTIONS: 

Use same method as above, but precede the operation by 
giving the wood a coat of tannic acid, one ounce to the 
gallon of water. When dry, apply regular gray maple 
stain. This produces a rich deep gray and can be changed 
by varying the strength of the two solutions. 

G. R. M. STANDARD MAHOGANY. 

FORMULA: 

Mahogany No. 708 1 pound 

Bichromate of Potash 1 pound 

Naphthol Yellow % ounce 

DIRECTIONS: 

Of the above powder mixture use six ounces to each 
gallon of water. This mahogany stain was adopted by 
the Grand Rapids furniture manufacturers as a standard. 
The filler is to be dark. Color the natural filler with Van 
Dyke brown, drop black and a small quantity of rose pink. 



446 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

JACOBEAN OAK. 

FORMULA: 

Oil Brown 2 ounces 

Oil Orange 1 ounce 

Oil Black 1 ounce 

Drop Black 8 ounces 

DIRECTIONS: 

Cut the color in warm turpentine; when all dissolved stir 
into the mixture one-half pound drop black, ground in oil. 
Then apply the stain, keeping continually stirred. When 
about ready to set, high light. In this purpose, use rags 
or burlap. Then shellac and wax. The color and shade 
may be varied by changing the amounts of material 
employed. 



KAISER GRAY. 

FORMULA: 

Sulphate of Iron V4, ounce 

Black P. B Vi ounce 

Oxalic Acid 1 dram 

Water V2 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

After sponging and sanding, give the work a good coat 
of stain, being careful to spread evenly. Give one or two 
coats of lacquer. Rub with hair cloth or 0000 sandpaper. 



KAISER GRAY. 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Oxalic Acid 1 dram 

Water 1 quart 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Black P. B 1 ounce 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS : 

Apply first coat thoroughly, then sand the work and give 
second coat. Do not sand this. If any grain is raised, 
rub with burlap. Then give one coat of lacquer, sand 
lightly and wax with paraffine wax. This is prepared by 
melting same. When in this condition add half turpen- 
tine and naphtha. Remove from fire before attempting 
this. 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



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PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 449 

KENILWORTH. 

FORMULA: 

Oil Brown, dark 4 ounces 

Oil Orange 2 gallons 

Oil Black i^ pound 

Asphaltum Varnish i/^ pound 

Turpentine V2 ounce 

Drop Black 2 ounces 

Burnt Umber 2 ounces 

DIRECTIONS: 

Warm a portion of the turpentine on a water bath and 
allow the oil anilines to melt. When solution is complete 
add another portion and stir well. Then mix the pigments 
with another portion, and when a smooth mixture is 
obtained mix all, using the balance of clear turpentine to 
rinse the mixing dishes. Apply with a wide flat brush 
and when dry high-light with sandpaper. Some prefer 
to do this with rags dampened with turpentine, taking off 
just enough color to show high-lighting when completely 
dry. 



LIMBERT'S No. 8 FUMED OAK. 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Bichromate of Potash 1 ounce 

Carbonate of Potash 1 ounce 

or 
Carbonate of Soda dried 1 ounce 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Walnut Crystals 1 ounce 

Solution No. 1 V2 ounce 

Solution No. 2 3% ounces 

Solution No. 3 2 ounces 

Water 1% pints 

Prepare solutions Nos. 1, 2 and 3 by dissolving: 

1% ounces of Naphthol Yellow in one quart of water 

1^/^ ounces of Black P. B in one quart of water 

1% ounces of Loutre in one quart 0;f water 

Label each bottle as Sol. No. 1, 2 and 3. 

DIRECTIONS: 

Coat the work with first coat stain. Sand well and apply 
oil made as follows: 

Boiled Linseed Oil 1 part 

Japan % part 

Turpentine 1 part 

Naphtha 4 parts 



450 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

Let this penetrate well. Rub off greasy spots and apply 
second coat. When dry, give a coat of white shellac, sand 
and wax. 

LIGHT BROWN MAHOGANY. 

FORMULA: 

Bichromate of Potash % ounce 

Mahogany Brown 2 ounces 

Mahogany Red % ounce 

Walnut Crystals 1 dram 

Water 5 quarts 

DIRECTIONS: 

After work has been prepared, give one good coat of stain. 
Sand lightly and shellac with half white and half orange 
shellac, giving two coats, and follow vdth one good coat 
of varnish. Rub dull. 

MAHOGANY STAIN FOR BIRCH. 

FORMULA: 

Mahogany No. 708 18 ounces 

Water 2 >^ gallons 

(See formula for No. 708) 

DIRECTIONS: 

First sponge the wood with a solution of lye, using one- 
fourth ounce of Lewis' or Babbitt's lye to a gallon of 
water. Sand and dust well, then apply stain, one coat of 
shellac and two coats of varnish. Rub dull. 

MAHOGANY No. 708. 

FORMULA: 

This is a popular one-powder mahogany stain made by 
mixing: 

Mahogany Red (Standard quality) 6 parts 

Mahogany Brown (Standard quality) 4 parts 

MAHOGANY, BROWN. 

FORMULA: 

Mahogany Brown 1% ounce 

Nigrosine, Jet Black % ounce 

Picric Acid 20 grains 

Water 1 gallon 



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FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 453 

DIRECTIONS: 

For genuine mahog:any apply one coat of stain; then sand 
and fill with a dark filler, first colored brown with Van 
Dyke brown, then made very dark with drop black. Shel- 
lac and apply two or three coats of varnish. Rub flat. 
For imitation coats reduce water 25 per cent. 

MAHOGANY, BROWN, ADAM. 

FORMULA: 

Mahogany Brown 2 ounces 

Nigrosine, Jet Black i/^ ounce 

Bichromate of Potash V4, ounce 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

Mix the colors and dissolve in water. Apply one coat of 
stain, and fill with a dark brown filler, softening the shade 
with a little rose pink. Shellac and give two coats of 
varnish: rub flat. For imitation woods use 25 per cent 
less water. 



MAHOGANY STAINS. 

The following formulas for mahogany will be found excellent 
in factories where large quantities of work are turned out. A 
close study of the various stain solutions will show wherein they 
constitute the "backbone" of all mahogany finishes. 

No. 1 STAIN: 

Bichromate of Potash 10 V^ ounces 

Water 2 gallons 

No. 2 STAIN: 

Mahogany Brown 4 ounces 

Mahogany Red 4 ounces 

Water 2 gallons 

No. 3 STAIN FOR MAHOGANY: 

No. 1 STAIN 3% ounces 

No. 2 Stain 5 gallons 

Water 10 gallons 

No. 4 STAIN FOR BIRCH TO MATCH MAHOGANY: 

Bichromate of Potash 2% ounces 

Mahogany Red 4 ounces 

Mahogany Brown 4 ounces 

Warm Water 2 gallons 



454 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

No. 5 STAIN FOR TOONA ON VENEER: 

Caustic Soda % ounce 

Spirits of Nitre 2 ounces 

No. 2 Stain 1 ounce (fluid) 

Water 2 gallons 

No. 6 STAIN FOR TOONA ON BIRCH: 

Use No. 2 Stain diluted to produce the same shade as 
No. 5 Stain produces on veneer. Then go over it with 
No. 5 if necessary. For Toona on solid mahogany use 
No. 5 double strength. 

DIRECTIONS: 

To produce satisfactory working solutions from mahogany 
stain powders, known as mahogany red and mahogany 
brown, care must be taken to get a good quality. The 
cheaper powders, usually sold around 50 cents per pound, 
do not contain the color value and thus the formula is 
liable to fall off in shade. After securing a good grade it 
is easy to establish these formulas to suit each particular 
case. 

These formulas will not produce the later shade of brown 
or Adam Mahogany. These are given under their respec- 
tive names. 



MALACHITE OAK 

FORMULA: 

Blue, extra Blue 1 ounce 

Acid Green 4 ounces 

Water 4 gallons 

DIRECTIONS: 

Dissolve the dyes in the water and when the solution is 
complete apply two good coats. Sand the first coat but 
not the second. Prepare the filler by coloring with six 
parts drop black, one part Van Dyke brown and one part 
deep green, all ground in oil. Give two coats of white 
shellac varnish and rub dull. This is a very dark green 
finish, the filler a shade darker. 

ORIENTAL OAK 

FORMULA: 

Dried Sulphate of Iron 120 grains 

Sulphate of Soda IV^ ounces 

Nigrosine, Jet Black 60 grains 

DIRECTIONS: 

Apply one coat of stain. Let stand 24 hours. Then sand 
and give a good coat of white shellac. Smooth with fine 
sandpaper and wax. 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



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YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FOR MULAS AND DIRECTIONS 457 

PALMETTO WAX 

A Good Furniture Wax 
FORMULA: 

Carnauba Wax 1 pound 

Cerosene Wax 2 pounds 

Paraffine Wax 4 pounds 

DIRECTIONS: 

Break up in small lumps and melt on stove. Stir well and 
if desired for future use, pour in tins. These can be of a 
size so that each will represent a definite weight. If de- 
sired for immediate use, add turpentine to the melted 
waxes just before they begin to harden. Substitute tur- 
pentine or mineral turpentine will do very well. Usually 
equal parts by weight will make a good working wax. 
This wax is durable, holds its finish and is inexpensive. 

OIL SOLUBLE GOLDEN OAK STAIN 
FORMULA: 

Oil Black 8 ounces 

Oil Yellow 4 ounces 

Oil Brown 1 ounce 

DIRECTIONS: 

Dissolve this in a w%ter bath in a quart of turpentine. 
Stir into one gallon of asphaltum varnish. When cool, 
add four gallons of naphtha. Apply this stain and allow 
it to set for 15 to 20 minutes, then fill with natural filler. 
The filler, when being applied, will lift up the excess 
stain, and by being brushed across the grain will color 
itself as it is being deposited in the pores of the wood. 
When cleaned off and when dry, shellac, varnish and 
polish or rub well. 

PRIMA VERA— MAHOGANY 

FORMULA: 

Bichromate of Potash 1 ounce 

Mahogany Red V2 ounce 

Water 1 gallon 

riRECTIONS: 

Dissolve the chemical and stain powder in water and allow 
to stand over night. If any sediment appears, drain off 
clear liquid or filter. Then coat the work, allowing same 
to dry for 24 hours. Most makers of furniture do not fill; 
this is a matter of choice. If filler is used, color with raw 
sienna or raw umber. Then oil with seven parts oil, one 
part japan. When dry, shellac, smooth if necessary, var- 
nish and rub flat. 



458 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

ROSEWOOD 

FORMULA: 

Bichromate of Potash 1 pound 

Mahogany Brown 5 pounds 

Nigrosine, Jet Black 2% pounds 

Methyl Violet 2 ounces 

DIRECTIONS: 

In place of pounds, use the quantities or proportions given 
as parts, calling them ounces, drams or grains, and the 
amount of water in accordance with one or two coat work. 
The filler should have one part of rose pink to three parts 
of Van Dyke brown. Use brown shellac, two coats of 
varnish. Rub dull. 

SHELLAC, WHITE 

Five pounds bleached shellac, one gallon wood or denatured 
alcohol. Follow directions given for orange shellac. Keep the 
product in glass jars or earthen jugs, as tin is liable to discolor 
it. Some users call for pure grain alcohol shellac varnish, but 
manufacturers have given up the manufacture of such a product 
long since, as consumers will not pay the price it would be neces- 
sary to charge. 

SHELLAC, ORANGE 

Four and one-half pounds- of gum as above, one gallon wood 
or denatured alcohol. Digest in a suitable mixing keg for large 
batches, or in a wide-mouthed glass jar for the small quantity 
given here. Agitate or shake the mixture occasionally until all 
the gum is dissolved. To hasten solution, keep in a warm place, 
or place jar in a warm water-bath. The batch noted above will 
produce one and one-third gallons. 

SHELLAC SUBSTITUTE 

A new shellac substitute is prepared by treating manila 
copal, sandarac, acaroid resins, and other resins soluble in alco- 
hol, and precipitating the resulting resin soaps with acids, the 
resin acids thus obtained being mixed with palmitic, stearic, 
elaidic and similar fatty acids. The mixture is said to possess 
the property of forming, on the evaporation of the solvent, an 
excellent varnish of good covering properties and as durable in 
air as shellac. The resin acids and solid fatty acids may be 
mixed, either in the solid state, as alcoholic solutions, or dis- 
solved together in an aqueous solution of alkali, followed by pre- 
cipitation. The proportions taken are: Manila copal, sandarac, 
acaroid resin, or mixtures of same, 30 parts; caustic potash lye 
(33 per cent strength), 13 ^/^ parts, and water, 50 parts, the whole 
being boiled until solution ensues. The solution is next treated 
with a hot solution of one part of commercial stearine and one 



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PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 461 

part of caustic potash lye in 10 parts of water, the whole being 
precipitated with a mineral acid. The precipitate is filtered, 
washed and dried, and is readily soluble in alcohol. 

SHERATON MAHOGANY 

FORMULA: 

Bichromate of Potash 1% ounces 

Black P. B 2 dr. 2 scu. 

Mahogany Red 1 scruple 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

After the wood is prepared by sponging and sanding, 
apply one good coat of stain working out with the brush. 
Then sand lightly and fill with filler colored as follows: 
For every 25 pounds of natural filler, use ten ounces of 
Van Dyke brown, eight ounces of burnt umber, six ounces 
of rose pink, all ground in oil. The shellac coat to be 
one-half orange and one-half white. Give one good coat 
of varnish (light), two are better. Can be finished in 
gloss or dull. 

SILVER OAK 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Potassium Bichromate % ounce 

Lye such as Lewis' or Babbitt's % ounce 

or 

Sal Soda 1 ounce 

Water 1 gallon 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Antwerp Stain Powder No. 2 3 ounces 

Blue, extra Blue 1 dram 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

Apply first coat and sand it lightly. Then apply second 
coat. When dry sand this well. Then coat with a mix- 
ture of zinc white, raw oil one part, naphtha seven parts, 
making a very thin solution. Rub this well into the pores. 
Clean off all the flakes and smooth wood. Then when 
dry, wax and rub to a polish. Do not shellac the work. 
This fiber oak must not be mistaken for any of the light 
gray oaks now so popular. It being a very dark color the 
pores are white. It makes a beautiful finish on ash, well 
adapted for grills, store fixtures, novelty furniture, and 
is very striking. 



462 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

STRATFORD OAK 

If it is to be produced with stains only, proceed as in formula 
G. R. M. Standard Fumed Oak, using four-fifths as much water 
for second coat. Then fill with a thin filler colored slightly pink 
with rose pink. This should not fill the pores, but merely give 
them a pink shade. If to be produced by aid of fuming, fume 
the wood well, then oil with one part raw oil and three parts 
naphtha. When dry, wipe off any greasy spots and give coat of 
stain made with four ounces of No. 13 brown to each gallon of 
water. Fill as above, sand lightly if necessary. Finish in wax, 
shellac if good job is wanted and wax last, otherwise omit it. 

TOBACCO BROWN 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Naphthol Yellow 4 ounces 

Potassium Bichromate % ounce 

Water 8 gallons 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Walnut Crystals 14 ounces 

Mahogany Brown 1% ounces 

Hot Water 2 gal. 5 pints 

DIRECTIONS: 

Prepare the wood in usual manner and give good coat of 
first coat stain. Sand, apply second coat stain. If any of 
the grain is raised, sand very lightly (this may be done 
after the shellac has been applied, the shellac coat to be 
half white and half brown). Fill with filler colored dark 
brown by using Van Dyke brown, ground in oil. Then 
shellac as above given. Varnish two coats and rub dead. 
Some makers have put out tobacco brown and finished it 
as fumed oak; that is, without filling and varnishing, 
simply giving a good wax coat on top of the shellac. This 
can be recognized, the stain coat remaining the same. 

VAN DYKE BROWN (On Gumwood) 

FORMULA: 

Walnut Crystals 10 ounces 

Black P. B V2 ounce 

Lye M ounce 

Water 2 gallons 

DIRECTIONS: 

To insure complete solution, dissolve stain material in hot 
water. Give work one coat of stain. When dry do not 
sand, but rub with burlap or excelsior. Apply two coats 
of white shellac, giving the shellac a slight tint by adding 
a few drops of a Bismark brown solution. Then coat with 
a good white varnish. Rub dull, preferably oil rub. 



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PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



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FORMULA S AND DIRECTIONS 465 

VERDA GREEN 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Sulphate of Iron, crystals 80 grains 

Oxalic Acid 30 grains 

Acid Green 30 grains 

Water 1 gallon 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Gelatine 4 ounces 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

This is usually employed on gum wood. Do not sponge the 
work. Apply stain; when dry, apply second coat. Let 
this dry 24 hours, then sand with fine paper. Apply one 
coat of lacquer. If surface is not smooth, sand again and 
wax, using a white wax. 

CHLORINATED SODA SOLUTION 

FORMULA: 

Solution A: 

Sal Soda 21 ounces 

Hot Water 40 ounces 

Solution B: 

Chlorinated Lime 10 ounces 

Water 1^/^ pints 

Mix thoroughly. 

DIRECTIONS: 

Stir this mixture thoroughly, then allow it to settle, and 
pour off the clear liquid. To the sediment, add another 
pint and a half of water and repeat the operation. After 
this second solution has settled, pour off the clear liquid 
into the other solution, and to the sediment add a bit 
more water. Let this filter into the balance of the 
chlorinated solution. Then pour the two solutions to- 
gether. The result will be a clear, pale, greenish liquid, 
having a faint odor of chlorine and a disagreeable alkaline 
taste. 

WALNUT BROWN FOR SOFT WOODS 

FORMULA: 

Walnut Crystals ground 10 ounces 

Bichromate of Potash % ounce 

Water 1 gallon 



466 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

DIRECTIONS: 

Walnut stain for soft woods must penetrate the white 
fibers so that when the work is sanded no light colored 
spots appear. If stain does not penetrate, go over the 
work again, brushing out till color is set. The finish is a 
matter of choice, usually done according to style of work. 
Use orange shellac which can be colored brown with an 
alcohol soluble color such as Crysoidine brown, or any 
other dye that will give a brown tone to shellac. 

WALNUT BROWN FOR HARD WOODS 

FORMULA: 

Walnut Crystals 12 ounces 

Carbonate of Soda (dried) Vz ounce 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

Use hot water to make a solution and strain the same 
when cool or pour off clear liquid. One coat usually will 
do the work. It is a matter of choice as to the filler. 
On maple or birch a thin filler should be used. This shade 
does not look well on oak as it resembles many other oak 
finishes. Therefore, no period or style is produced. Finish 
in usual manner for walnut. 

WATER SOLUBLE GOLDEN OAK STAIN 

FORMULA: 

Loutre , 3 parts 

Naphthol Yellow 1 part 

Water sufficient to produce the desired shade. 

DIRECTIONS: 

Apply the stain, sand well. Prepare the filler with color- 
ing with Van Dyke brown, or if a dark brown shade is 
desired, add asphaltum varnish to the filler. The results, 
however, cannot be judged until after the first coat of 
shellac has been applied. 

WEATHERED OAK 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Walnut Crystals 4 ounces 

Water 1 gallon 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Scarlet 2RL V2 ounce 

Nigrosine, Jet Black 3 ounces 

Water 1 gallon 



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PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOI/i 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 469 

DIRECTIONS: 

The first coat is to be applied well so as to raise the grain. 
Then sand and apply the second coat. This is not sanded 
but the shellac applied; then use white shellac. Sand 
lightly to get smooth surface and wax. This finish has 
no filler and should not have too much finish. 
Great latitude may be used in the strength of the stain, 
as there are now so many shades of weathered oak, but 
the ingredients will produce any shade desired merely 
requiring the change of strength. 



WEATHERED OAK 

Grand Rapids Manufacturers' Standard. 

FIRST COAT FORMULA: 

Walnut Crystals 4 ounces 

Water 1 gallon 

SECOND COAT FORMULA: 

Nigrosine, Jet Black 6V^ drams 

Scarlet 2RL IVa drams 

Water 1 gallon 

DIRECTIONS: 

Apply first coat heavy, same to be sponging coat as well 
as coloring. Sand smooth, then apply second coat, but do 
not sand. Give one coat white shellac and wax. The 
proportions in this formula may be varied greatly, and 
thus many delightful shades of weathered oak may be 
obtained. 



WEATHERED OAK 

In this series of formulas are brought out the different 
methods and schemes for the production of weathered oaks. 
There is a great variation of weathered oak shades and from 
one or another it is hoped the artisan will get what he wants. 

FORMULA No. 1: x 

After sponging the wood and sanding, stain with the following: 

Nigrosine, Jet Black 1 ounce 

Bichromate of Potash Vz ounce 

Walnut Brown 2 ounces 

Water 1 gallon 

Give one coat, shellac before sanding. When shellac is dry, 
cut fibers with fine sandpaper, wax with uncolored wax so the 
pores have a grayish appearance. 



470 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

FORMULA No. 2: 

After sponging the wood, apply a stain made up as follows: 

Ground Walnut 4 ounces 

Scarlet V2 ounce 

Nigrosine, Jet Black 2 ounces 

Water-.- 1 gallon 

Finish to be the same as first formula. 

FORMULA No. 3: 

For a higher grade of work, the following formulas are 
recommended: 

Without sponging, give the work a coat of sap brown, as 
follows: Sap brown, dissolved in hot water, four ounces to one 
gallon. 

Applying the stain warm, sand and apply second coat made of 

Scarlet 1 ounce 

Nigrosine, Jet Black..... 6 ounces 

This amount of powder is to be dissolved in two gallons of 
water. Coat the work, shellac, then cut the fibers, wax. 

FORMULA No. 4: 

A formula which is popular and might be called a single coat 
stain is made up as follows (note that is part of the foregoing 
formula) : 

Scarlet 1 ounce 

Nigrosine, Jet Black 6 ounces 

Loutre 3 ounces 

Of the above mixture, dissolve three ounces of stain powder 
in a gallon of water. 

This formula is usually used on the cheaper grade of work. 
The work is not sponged at all, the first coat of very thin shellac 
is put over the stain and then it is sanded just lightly enough 
to cut any fibers that may be penetrating the shellac coat. The 
wax is put on with a brush, by which you understand the wax as 
is ordinarily supplied has been thinned, a little color added to it 
to darken it, and when it is set, rub to a polish. 

FORMULA No. 5: 

A very good oil soluble weathered oak stain can be made as 

follows : 

Oil Red % ounce 

Oil Black 8 ounces 

Oil Brown V2 ounce 

Dissolve on a water bath, turpentine one and one-half pints. 

When the mixture is cool, add 

Benzole IV2 pints 

Naphtha 1 gallon 



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FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 473 

Use the naphtha for rinsing out the dishes so no color will 
be lost. Then add four ounces of acetone to set the color. 

A brownish shade of weathered oak can be produced by add- 
ing to the above amount of colors two ounces of oil brown, and 
using a correspondingly less amount of the oil black. 

In these oil formulas there is very apt to be difficulty in 
getting a good stain from the fact that there is so much dif- 
ference in the shades of the red and browns. 

Spirit weathered oak stains are made in much the same man- 
ner, but they are not recommended; they are apt to fade. How- 
ever, there are places where nothing else would do, therefore 
we give two other formulas: 

FORMULA No. 6: 

Spirit Black 4 ounces 

Spirit Scarlet 1 ounce 

Auramine 1 dram 

Wood Alcohol 1 gallon 

As this stain is apt to lift when the shellac coat is applied, 
the dissolving of spirit black in the shellac will help to keep the 
color uniform. Sand this coat of shellac lightly and then apply 
the wax. 

FORMULA No. 7: 

Spirit Black 4 ounces 

Violet BB 10 grains 

Orange 2 drams 

Acetone '. 1 ounce 

Alcohol 1 gallon 

It is seen readily that black forms a basis for this stain and 
that the other colors are used solely for the purpose of throwing 
the shade. It is recommended that in making a weathered oak 
stain you use the black of a standard uniform strength, and vary 
the shades by the addition of the other colors suggested from 
the results of the experiments. The same usual precautions are 
necessary. See to it that all the colors are thoroughly dissolved, 
know the strength, write it on a label and paste it on a bottle, 
and then carefully note the addition of each color. In that way 
your formula is established as the work proceeds and it is not 
necessary to go back and figure again the quantities you have 
employed. 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



CHAPTER LXXIX 
NEW STANDARD FINISHES 

IN 1917 we brought out a standard finish for American wal- 
nut, red mahogany, brown mahogany, Jacobean and fumed 
oak. The finishes were demanded by many associations and 
are now in general use. 

STANDARD AMERICAN WALNUT 

All wood must be sponged and sanded. 

STAIN FORMULA: 

Loutre C 3381 1 ounce 

Brown Mahogany 3C82 % ounce 

Yellow H 8903 1 ounce 

Sulphur Brown (Swiss) 12 ounces 

Lye (Babbitt's or Lewis') % ounce 

Water 6% gallons 

DIRECTIONS: 

Give the work a good coat of this stain; when dry, a coat 
of shellac, using about 1 part of shellac to 1 or 2 parts 
of wood alcohol. Then sand (before filling with fine or 
old sandpaper. Filling to be colored with Van Dyke 
brown or made as near the color of the wood as possible. 
If the work should be too light after filling, stain it with 
the same stain before shellacing. Use half white and 
half orange shellac and two or three coats of varnish. 
Rub dull with oil. 

STANDARD AMERICAN MAHOGANY 

FORMULA: 

Bichromate of Potash 2 ounces 

Lye (Babbitt's or Lewis') % ounce 

Brown Mahogany No. 909 3% ounces 

Scarlet 2 R. B. % ounce 

Nigrosine Black T Vs ounce 

Water l^^ gallons 

DIRECTIONS: 

First give the work a good coat of this stain; when dry, 
sand with fine or old sandpaper. Filling to be colored 
with Van Dyke brown and Rose Pink. When filling is 
dry, give it a thin coat of orange shellac, two or three 
coats of varnish. Rub dull. 



476 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

STANDARD BROWN MAHOGANY 

STAIN FORMULA: 

Bichromate of Potash 12 ounces 

Lye % ounce 

Loutre C-3381 12 ounces 

Mahogany H 9844 1 ounce 

Or 3 drams Red; 5 drams Brown. 

Black Nigrosine T 2 ounces 

Water 10 gallons 

DIRECTIONS: 

Give the work a good coat of this stain; when dry, apply 
shellac, using one part of orange shellac to two or three 
parts of alcohol. Then sand with very fine or old sand- 
paper. Fill with filler colored with Van Dyke Brown. 
Then shellac with equal parts or orange and white 
shellac. Finish with two or three coats of varnish. Rub 
dull. 

STANDARD JACOBEAN 

FORMULA: 

H 1220 Oil Soluble IVa ounces 

Benzole 8 ounces 

Burnt Umber Mixture 2% ounces 

Lamp Black ground in oil 4 ounces 

Turpentine 1 pint 

Naphtha, enough to make a good Vi. gallon. 

DIRECTIONS: 

First see that the work is sanded smooth. Then give the 
work a light coat of this stain, using a fitch brush for 
applying, and use a soft brush to lay it off (2% or 3-inch 
chiseled ox-hair). The next day, highlight, using a very 
fine or old sandpaper. Then give a coat of half orange 
and half white shellac, sand lightly and give a coat of 
flat finish, or 2 or 3 coats shellac and oil; rub lightly. 

BURNT UMBER MIXTURE: 

1 pound color ground in oil with 
1 quart Turpentine. 

STANDARD FUMED OAK 
STAIN METHOD 

Give the work a coat of the stain made by dissolving Vz 
ounce of Dried Carbonate of Soda and ¥2 ounce of Bichromate 
of Potash in 1 gallon of water. Then dry, sand and oil the 
work, using 1 pint of Boiled Oil, pint Japan and 3 pints of 
Naphtha. Rub dry with rags or cloth. 

The next day give the work a coat of No. 2 stain, using 
a fitch brush for applying. When dry, give 1 or 2 coats of thin 
shellac, or if preferred, 1 good coat. Sandpaper and wax. 



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FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 479 

FORMULA: For Second Coat: 

Jet Black % ounce 

Walnut Crystals SV2 ounces 

Mahog-any Stain Sol 2 ounces 

Concentrated Ammonia 4 ounces 

Water 1 gallon 

MAHOGANY SOLUTION: Made by Dissolving— 

IVa ounces Stain No. 9844 in 

1 quart Water 

or 

1^/4 ounces Mahogany Brown and 

1% ounces Mahogany Red in 

1 gallon Water 

FINISHES FOR INLAYS 

To produce absolutely fast-to-light colors on inlay wood and 
to dye them so the color will have completely penetrated, the 
application of the following formulas as a base from which to 
work will serve not only to establish the one color, as produced 
by the formula, but by varying the amount of dyestuffs, differ- 
ent shades may be obtained according to the difference in the 
amount of actual color employed. It will be noted by the oper- 
ator that heat is employed, but it must be remembered that 
inlay wood need only to be immersed in the dye solutions until 
the dye has thoroughly penetrated the fiber of the wood. 

TO PRODUCE EBONY: 

6 parts Chrome Black LJ 

Top with 1% parts of Bichromate of Soda, or 
6 parts Chrome Black LB 

Top with IVa parts of Bichromate of Soda. 

METHOD: 

Make up the bath with the color and 6 parts of acetic 
acid (30 per cent commercial). Enter the wood cold; heat 
slowly and dye at a gentle boil until the wood has been 
penetrated, then add the bichromate of soda, and con- 
tinue heat to a gentle boil for about 30 minutes. The 
amount of water can largely be governed by the size of 
tank and bulkiness of the wood. 

OTHER SHADES OF BLACK: 

6 parts of Acid Black No. 1, or 
6 parts of Acid Black No. 2, or 
6 parts of Naphthol Black B, or 
6 parts of Acid Black 10-B. 

METHOD: 

Same as above without employing the Bichromate of Soda. 



480 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

TO PRODUCE PEARL GRAY: 
1 part of Nigrosine OP 
4 parts of Sulphuric Acid and 
10 parts of Glauber Salts (Sulphate of Soda) 
Enter the wood to be dyed cold, and increase the temper- 
ature until the color has penetrated the wood. Remove 
and rinse in clear water; lay out to dry. 

TO PRODUCE SILVER GRAY: 

Same method, using 1 part of Nigrosine J. 

TO PRODUCE ASH GRAY: 

4 parts of Nigrosine JD 

8 parts of Sulphuric Acid 
40 parts of Glauber Salts or Sulphate of Soda. 
Use the same method as employed to produce Pearl Gray. 

TO PRODUCE BLUE GRAY: 

4 parts of Fast Blue (Induline) 
8 parts of Sulphuric Acid 
40 parts of Glauber Salts or Sulphate of Soda. 
And the same method as employed to produce Ash Gray. 

TO PRODUCE NAVY BLUE: 

2 parts of Alkali Blue (Nicholson) 
5 parts of Borax. 
Immerse cold and bring to a boil. 

Employing the same method and formula as Standard 
blue. It usually requires about 40 minutes: the boiling 
should be gentle. As soon as the color has penetrated the 
wood, lift out the wood and immerse in second bath of 
cold water to which has been added four parts of the 
original formula in sulphuric acid. For example, if the 
parts were called ounces, it would mean approximately one 
ounce to every two or three gallons of water. It is the 
amount of material present in the water that does the 
work, the amount of water being governed by tha size of 
the material to be colored. 

TO PRODUCE NAVY BLUE (Violet tone) : 
2 parts of Alkali Violet, concentrated 
5 parts of Borax. 
And same procedure as navy blue. 

TO PRODUCE STANDARD BLUE: 
2 parts of Blue R 
64 parts of Sulphuric Acid 
160 parts of Glauber Salts 
Water as required, not less than 10 gallons. 
Immerse the wood cold. Increase the heat and tempera- 
ture slowly until the color has penetrated. 



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FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 483 

TO PRODUCE OTHER BLUES: 

2 parts of Blue R, or 2 parts of Blue SBX, or 

2 parts of Blue 2B, or 2 parts of Water Blue 

2 parts of Blue 3B, or 

A series of Peacock blues are made by using one part of 

Patent blue, or 

2 parts of Patent Blue, or 

1 part of Azurino, or 

2 parts of Azurino with 

4 parts of Sulphuric Acid and 
10 parts of Glauber Salts 
And following the general method as for Pearl Gray. 

TO PRODUCE EMERALD GREEN: 
11/2 parts of Acid Green 2BX 

TO PRODUCE EMERALD GREEN (Dark): 

3 parts of Acid Green 2BX 

TO PRODUCE OTHER SHADES OF GREEN: 

1% parts of Acid Green 2GX, and a darker shade 
3 parts of Acid Green 2GX 

In the production of these greens, the same procedure 
is followed as in the blues, namely, to use four parts of 
sulphuric acid in ten parts of Glauber salts. In no case 
shall the water be less than ten gallons. 
Each individual case will need the establishment of the 
operative formula to be made from the above keys, ac- 
cording to the size of the vat or tank employed. Wooden 
vats will answer, the heat being applied by steam coils. 
The general idea is to give sufficient information so as 
to enable the woodworker to have the fundamentals. 
Relative to the dye materials, some of them may be still 
difficult to obtain, but we are slowly, but surely, ap- 
proaching that period where our own market will give 
us all requirements. 

TO PRODUCE ORANGE: 

Crocein Orange 3 pounds 

Sulphuric Acid 4 pounds 

Glauber Salts 10 pounds 

Water sufficient to make a bath sufficient to immerse the 
wood, which may be left in this bath until the dye is 
exhausted or required shade is obtained. Temperature 
should be gradually raised to within boiling. 
The other shades of Orange which are to follow, and 
which are made with the same formula but produce other 
shades of Orange are as follows: 



484 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

Oranp:e A 

Orange Y 

Orange R or Orange RR. 

It will be noticed that the formula is identical and for 

small quantities it can be changed to read parts instead 

of pounds, and a part may be called a drahm, an ounce, 

or a number of ounces, as long as the formula is continued 

in the same proportion. 

Pale shades of Orange may be made by decreasing the 

amount of dye stuff employed. 

A series of Orange shades may be obtained by the use 

of the following formula: 

3 pounds of Acetic Acid, which should be Commercial S0%, 

and the requisite amount of dye stuff as given below, 

entering the wood cold, and bringing the bath to a gentle 

boil, continue this for about fifteen minutes or until the 

bath is exhausted. 

AMOUNT OF COLOR REQUIRED: 

Eosine 3 J, V2 pound, or Eosine PB, 1 pound 

Eosine 3 J, 1 pound Eosine XX Crystal, V2 pound 

Eosine J, V2 pound, or Eosine XX Crystal, 1 pound 

Eosine J, 1 pound Erythrosine J, V2 pound or 

Eosine PB, V2 pound, or Erythrosine J, 1 pound. 

In the listing of the foregoing be it understood that each 

enumeration completes a distinct formula for the bath. 

TO PRODUCE PINK: 

Rose Bengal V2 pound or 

a darker shade. 

Rose Belgal : 1 pound, 

using the Acetic Acid bath. 

The pale pink, such as the wild rose, is made in a neulval- 
bath, using Rhodamine BX only in whatever strength is 
desired, immersing in hot water and continuing at a gentle 
boil from thirty to forty minutes. 

TO PRODUCE SCARLETS: 

The bath is built by using 

Sulphuric Acid 4 pounds 

Glauber Salts 10 pounds 

to which proportion use dyestuff as follows: Each listing 
constituting a formula when added to the above chemicals 
and the requisite amount of water. 

Scarlet 2 RL 3 pounds 

Scarlet 3 RL 3 pounds 

Scarlet 4 R Brilliant 3 pounds 

Croseine Scarlet MOO 3 pounds 

Croseine Scarlet 4B 3 pounds 

Croseine Scarlet 9B 3 pounds 

Croseine Scarlet lOB 3 pounds 



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FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 487 

TO PRODUCE BRILLIANT RED; 

Azo Rubine 3 pounds 

TO PRODUCE A BLOOD RED: 

Amaranth 3 pounds 

TO PRODUCE A CARDINAL RED: 

Bordeaux B 3 pounds 

The various shades of violet or purple are produced by 
Acid Violet 4 BNS 2 lbs. 

using the Sulphuric Acid Soda base, varying the amount 
of dye stuffs producing other shades. 

TO PRODUCE LAVENDERS AND DARKER SHADES: 

Fast Blue 26 ounces 

Naphthol Yellow li^ ounces or 

Acid Violet 4 BNS 10 ounces 

Fast Acid Vioiet 10 ounces 

employing the Sulphuric Acid Soda base. 

Varying of the dye stuffs gives the different tones of 
lavender and heliotrope. 

TO PRODUCE RUSSET SHADE: 

Yellow MXX Concentrated 14% ounces 

Nigrosine OP % ounce 

Fast Red S 1 ounce 

TO PRODUCE GOLDEN BROWN: 

Orange 2R 13% ounces 

Nigrosine OP 1 ounce 

Yellow M XX Concentrated 1% ounce 

TO PRODUCE VARIOUS SHADES OF BROWN: 

Orange Y 14 ounces 

Nigrosine OP 6 ounces 

Changing of the proportion will enable the operator to 
produce the various shades of brown. 

From these formulas for dyeing wood, rnly the regular 
shades are produced. The operator will know that the 
admixture of the different dyestuffs in their regulai- classi- 
fication will enable him to produce the hundreds of other 
shades possible by the addition of more or less color 
material. The only care that must be exercised is not to 
use a dye material recommended with acetic acid in the 
sulphuric glauber salt bath. The operator will further 
notice that the amount of water employed is left to his 
discretion. For instance, where large quantities of wood 
are to be dyed the color material can be exhausted or 
dyeing continued until the desired shades are no longer 
obtained. 



488 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

SHOP NOTES. 

Use shellac in thin coats. 

A little yellow added to a black will "jet it," that is, make 
a jet black color. 

If necessary to thin varnish, pure turpentine only should be 
used. Oils or other varnishes should never be used. 

Never put a coat of shellac between two coats of varnish. 
This makes a very brittle finish, one that is sure to crack in time. 

Fillers grenerally set in 20 to 30 minutes and should then 
be cleaned off. Excelsior or waste may be used. Always clean 
off "cross" the grain, never "with" the grain. 

If white shellac is not soluble in alcohol, moisten the shellac 
with a quarter of its weight of ether, and let soak for a time. 
The solubility will then be completely restored. 

A coat of shellac should always be used between the stain 
coat and filler. This prevents the filler from mingling with the 
stain, which would produce a cloudy or muddy effect. 

Filler is simply intended to fill the large pores in open- 
grained woods, which produces a perfectly smooth working sur- 
face upon which to apply the finishing coats. Sometimes, how- 
ever, a colored filler is used to get certain color effects. 

When oil stains are employed, the filler should be applied 
first. If this is not done, when the filler is cleaned off, some of 
the stain will go with it, and produce uneven, or blotchy work. 

If varnish becomes "specky" after it has been applied, it is 
often due to the fact that it has become chilled. The specks 
look like bits of undissolved gum, but this is not the case, as the 
effect is caused by the congealing of the oil in the varnish. 

If shellac turns white under varnish, the finish may gener- 
ally be restored by gently applying alcohol. This soaks through 
the varnish coat and re-dissolves the shellac. After this is ac- 
complished, gently apply linseed oil. Let dry thoroughly, and 
then rub down and give one coat of good varnish. 

Remember, the best filler is made of silex, oil, dryers, a little 
varnish or Japan dryer and the color pigment. If you have 
trouble with "pitting" of the pores, very likely it is due to an 
inferior filler made with whiting or some such material, which 
shrinks when dry, drawing the oil out of the varnish, and causing 
minute holes. 



CHAPTER LXXX. 
LIQUID GLUES. 

FORMULA: 

1. Glue 3 ounces 

Gelatin 3 ounces 

Acetic Acid 4 ounces 

Water 2 ounces 

Alum 30 grains 

Heat together for six hours, skim, and add: 

2. Alcohol 1 fluid ounce 

Brown Glue No. 2 2 pounds 

Sodium Carbonate 11 ounces 

Water 3^ pints 

Oil of Cloves 160 minims 

DIRECTIONS: 

Dissolve the soda in the water, pour solution over the dry 
glue, let stand over night or till thoroughly soaked and 
swelled; then heat carefully on a water bath until dis- 
solved. When nearly cold stir in the oil of cloves. By 
. using white glue, a finer article, fit for fancy work, may 
be made. Or 

Dissolve by heating 60 parts of borax in 420 parts of 
water, add 480 parts dextrin (pale yellow) and 50 parts 
of glocuse and heat carefully vvith continued stirring, to 
complete solution; replace the evaporated water and pour 
through flannel. The glue made in this way remains clear 
quite a long time, and possesses great adhesive power; it 
also dries very quickly, but upon careless and extended 
heaing above 90 degrees C. (194 degrees F.), it is apt to 
turn brown and brittle. Or 

Pour 50 parts of warm (not hot) water over 50 parts of 
Cologne glue and allow to soak over night. Next day the 
swelled glue is dissolved with moderate heat, and if still 
too thick, a little more water is added. When this is done, 
add from two and one-half to three parts of crude nitric 
acid, stir well and fill the liquid glue in well-corked bot- 
tles. This is a good liquid steam glue. Or 
Soak one pound of good glue in a quart of water for a 
few hours, then melt the glue by heating it, together with 
the unabsorbed water, then stir in one-fourth pound dry 
white lead, and when that is well mixed pour in four fluid 
ounces of alcohol and continue the boiling five minutes 
longer. Or 



490 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

Soak one pound of good glue in one and one-half pints of 
cold water for five hours, then add three ounces of zinc 
sulphate and two fluid ounces of hydrochloric acid, and 
keep the mixture heated for 10 or 12 hours at 175 degrees 
to 190 degrees F. The glue remains liquid and may be 
used for sticking a variety of materials. 
A very inexpensive liquid glue may be prepared by first 
soaking and then dissolving gelatin in twice its own 
weight of water at a very gentle heat; then add glacial 
acetic acid in weight equal to the weight of the dry 
gelatin. It should be remembered, however, that all acid 
glues are not generally applicable. 

FORMULA: 

Glue 200 parts 

Dilute Acetic Acid 400 parts 

Dissolve by the aid of heat and add: 

Alcohol 25 parts 

Alum 5 parts 

FORMULA: 

Glue 5 parts 

Calcium Chloride 1 part 

Water 1 part 

FORMULA: 

Sugar of Lead 1^^ drams 

Alum IV^ drams 

Gum Arabic 2% drams 

Wheat Flour 1 av. lb. 

Water, q. s. 

Dissolve the gum in two parts of warm water; when cold 
mix in the flour, and add the sugar of lead and alum dis- 
solved in water; heat the whole over a slow fire until it 
shows signs of ebullition. Let it cool, and add enough 
gum water to bring it to the proper consistency. Or 
Dilute one part of official phosphoric acid with two parts 
of water and neutralize the solution with carbonate of 
ammonium. Add to the liquid an equal quantity of water, 
warm it on a water bath, and dissolve in it sufficient glue 
to form a thick syrupy liquid. Keep in well-stoppered 
bottles. Or 

Dissolve three parts of glue in small pieces in 12 to 15 of 
saccharate of lime. By heating, the glue dissolves rapidly 
and remains liquid, when cold, without loss of adhesive 
power. Any desirable consistency can be secured by vary- 
ing the amount of saccharate of lime. Thick glue retains 
its muddy color, while a thin solution becomes clear on 
standing. The saccharate of lime is prepared by dissolv- 



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FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 493 

ing one part of sugar in three parts of water, and after 
adding one-fourth part of the weight of the sugar of 
slaked lime, heating the whole from 149 to 185 degrees F., 
allowing it to macerate for several days, shaking it fre- 
quently. The solution, which has the properties of 
mucilage, is then decanted from the sediment. 
In a solution of borax in water soak a good quantity of 
g-lue until it has thoroughly imbibed the liquid. Pour off 
the surplus solution and then put on the water bath and 
melt the glue. Cool down until the glue begins to set, 
then add, drop by drop, with agitation, enough acetic acid 
to check the tendency to solidification. If, after becoming 
quite cold, there is still a tendency to solidification, add a 
few drops more of the acid. The liquid should be of the 
consistency of ordinary mucilage at all times. 

FORMULA: 

Gelatin 100 parts 

Cabinetmakers' Glue 100 parts 

Alcohol 25 parts 

Alum 2 parts 

Acetic Acid, 20 per cent 800 parts 

DIRECTIONS: 

Soak the gelatin and glue with the acetic acid and heat 
on a water bath until fluid; then add the alum and alcohol, 

FORMULA: 

Glue 10 parts 

Water 15 parts 

Sodium Salicylate 1 part 

GLUE FOR CELLULOID 

1. Two parts shellac, three parts spirits of camp?ior, and 
four parts strong alcohol dissolved in a warm place, give an 
excellent gluing agent to fix wood, tin, and other bodies to cellu- 
loid. The glue must be kept well corked. 

2. A collodion solution may be used, or an alcoholic solution 
of fine celluloid shavings. 

WATER-PROOF GLUES. 

The glue is put in water till it is soft, and subsequently 
melted in linseed oil at moderate heat. This glue is affected 
neither by water nor by vapors. 

Dissolve a small quantity of sandarac and mastic in a little 
alcohol, and add a little turpentine. The solution is boiled in a 
kettle over the fire, and an equal quantity of a strong hot 
solution of glue and isinglass is added. Then filter through a 
cloth while hot. 



494 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

Waterproof ^lue may also be produced by the simple addition 
of bichromate of potassium to the liquid glue solution, and sub- 
sequent exposure to the air. 

Mix glue as usual, and then add linseed oil in the proportion 
of one part oil to eight parts glue. If it is desired that the 
mixture remain liquid, one-half ounce of nitric acid should be 
added to every pound of glue. This will also prevent the glue 
from souring. 

In 1,000 parts of rectified alcohol dissolve 60 parts of san- 
darac and as much mastic, whereupon add 60 parts of white oil 
of turpentine. Next, prepare a rather strong glue solution and 
add about the like quantity of isinglass, heating the solution 
until it commences to boil; then slowly add the hot glue solution 
till a thin paste foi-ms, which can still be filtered through a cloth. 
Heat the solution before use and employ like ordinary glue. A 
connection effected with this glue is not dissolved by cold water 
and even resists hot water for a long time. 

Soak 1,000 parts of Cologne glue in cold water for 12 hours 
and in another vessel for the same length of time 150 parts 
isinglass in a mixture of lamp spirit and water. Then dissolve 
both masses together on the water bath in a suitable vessel, thin- 
ning if necessary, with some hot water. Next add 100 parts of 
linseed oil varnish and filter hot through linen. 

Ordinary glue is kept in water until it swells up without 
losing its shape. Thus softened it is placed in an iron ci'ucible 
without adding water; then add linseed oil according to the 
quantity of the glue and leave this mixture to boil over a slow 
fire until a gelatinous mass results. Such glue unites materials 
in a very durable manner. It adheres firmly and hardens quickly. 
Its chief advantage, however, consists in that it neither absorbs 
water nor allows it to pass through, whereby the connecting 
places are often destroyed. A little borax will prevent putre- 
faction. 

Bichromate of potassium 40 parts, by weight, gelatin glue 
55 parts, alum five parts. Dissolve the glue in a little water and 
add the bichromate of potassium and the alum. 

This preparation permits an absolutely permanent gluing of 
pieces of cardboard, even when they are moistened by water. 
Melt together equal parts of good pitch and gutta percha; of this 
take nine parts, and add to it three parts of boiled linseed oil 
and one and one-half parts of litharge. Place this over the fire 
and stir it till all the ingredients are intimately mixed. The 
mixture may be diluted with a little benzine or oil of turpentine, 
and must be warm when used. 

GLUE FOR PAPER AND METAL. 

A glue which will keep well and adhere tightly is obtained by 
diluting 1,000 parts, by weight, of potato starch, in 1,200 parts, 
by weight, of water, and adding 50 parts, by weight, of pure nitric 
acid. The mixture is kept in a hot place for 48 hours, taking 
care to stir frequently. It is afterwards boiled to a thick and 



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FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 497 

transparent consistency, diluted with water if there is occasion, 
and then there are added in the form of a screened powder, two 
parts of sal ammoniac and one part of sulphur flowers. 

GLUE FOR LEATHER ON CARDBOARD. 

To attach leather to cardboard, dissolve a good glue (softened 
by swelling in water) with a little turpentine and enough water 
in an ordinary glue pot, and then having made a thick paste 
with starch in the proportion of two parts, by weight, of starch 
powder for every one part, by weight, of dry glue; mix the com- 
pounds and allow the mixture to become cold before application 
to the cardboard. 

FOR WOOD, GLASS, METALS, MINERALS 

Take boiled linseed oil 20 parts, Flemish glue 20 parts, 
hydrated lime 15 parts, powdered turpentine five parts, alum 
five parts, acetic acid five parts. Dissolve the glue with the 
acetic acid, add the alum, then the hydrated lime, and finally 
the turpentine and the boiled linseed oil. Triturate all well until 
it forms a homogeneous paste and keep in well-closed flasks. 
Use like any other glue. 

GLUE FOR UNITING METALS WITH FABRICS. 

Cologne glue of good quality is soaked and boiled down to the 
consistency of that used by cabinetmakers. Then add, with 
constant stirring, sifted wood ashes until a moderately thick 
homogeneous mass results. Use hot and press the pieces well 
together during the drying. For tinfoil about 2 per cent of 
boracic acid should be added instead of the wood ashes. 

BELT GLUE. 

A glue for belts can be prepared as follows: Soak 50 parts 
of gelatin in water, pour off the excess water, and heat on 
the water bath. With good stirring add first, five parts, by 
weight, of glycerine; then 10 parts, by weight, of turpentine; 
and five parts, by weight, of linseed oil varnish and thin with 
water as required. The ends of the belts to be glued are cut off 
obliquely and warmed; then the hot glue is applied, and the 
united parts are subjected to strong pressure, allowing them to 
dry thus for 24 hours before the belts are used. 

MARINE GLUE. 

Marine glue is a product consisting of shellac and catechu, 
which is mixed differently according to the use for which it is 
required. The quantity of benzol used as solvent governs the 
hai'dness or softness of the glue. 

1. One part Para catechu is dissolved in 12 parts benzol; 
20 parts powdered shellac are added to the solution, and the 
mixture is carefully heated. 



498 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

2. Stronger glue is obtained by dissolving 10 parts good 
crude catechu in 120 parts benzine or naphtha which solution 
is poured slowly and in a fine stream into 20 parts asphaltum 
melted in a kettle, stirring constantly and heating. Pour the 
finished glue, after the solvent has almost evaporated and the 
mass has become quite uniform, into flat molds, in which it 
solidifies in very hard tablets of dark brown or black color. For 
use, these glue tablets are first soaked in boiling water and then 
heated over a free flame until the marine glue has become thinly 
liquid. Th pieces to be glued are also warmed and a very dur- 
able union is obtained. 

3. Cut catechu into small pieces and dissolve in coal 
naphtha by heat and agitation. Add to this solution powdered 
shellac, and heat the whole, constantly stirring until combina- 
tion takes place, then pour it on metal plates to form sheets. 
When used it must be heated to 248 degrees F. and applied with 
a brush. 

CEMENT TO ATTACH OBJECTS TO GLASS. 
FORMULA: 

Rosin 1 part 

Yellow Wax 2 parts 

Melt together. 

TO ATTACH COPPER TO GLASS. 

Boil one part of caustic soda and three parts of colophony 
in five parts of water and mix with the like quantity of 
plaster of Paris. This cement is not attacked by water, 
heat, or petroleum. If, in place of the plaster of Paris, 
zinc white, white lead, or slaked lime is used, the cement 
hardens more slowly. 

TO FASTEN BRASS UPON GLASS. 

Boil together one part of caustic soda, three parts of 
rosin, three parts of gypsum, and five parts of water. 
The cement made in this way hardens in about half an 
hour, hence it must be applied quickly. During the 
preparation it should be stirred constantly. All the 
ingredients used must be in finely powdered state. 

TO CEMENT GLASS TO IRON. 

FORMULA: 

1. Rosin 5 ounces 

Yellow Wax 1 ounce 

Venetian Red 1 ounce 

2. Portland Cement 2 ounces 

Prepared Chalk 1 ounce 

Fine Sand 1 ounce 



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FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 501 

Solution of sodium silicate enough to form a semi-liquid 
paste. 

3. Litharge 2 parts 

White Lead 1 part 

Work into a pasty condition by using three parts boiled 
linseed oil, one part copal varnish. 

DIRECTIONS: 

Melt the wax and rosin on a water bath and add, under 
constant stirring, the Venetian red previously well dried. 
Stir until nearly cool, so as to prevent the Venetian red 
from settling to the bottom. 

CELLULOID CEMENTS. 

To mend broken draughting triangles and other celluloid 
articles, use three parts alcohol and four parts ether 
mixed together and applied to the fracture with a brush 
until the edges become warm. The edges are then stuck 
together and left to dry for at least 24 hours. 
Camphor, one part; alcohol, four parts. Dissolve and 
add equal quantities, by weight, of shellac to this solu- 
tion. 

If firmness is desired in putting celluloid on wood, tin, 
etc., the following gluing agent is recommended, viz.: A 
compound of two parts shellac, three parts spirit of 
camphor, and four parts of strong alcohol. 

Shellac 2 ounces 

Spirits of Camphor 2 ounces 

Alcohol, 90 per cent 6 to 8 ounces 

Make a moderately strong glue or solution of gelatin. 
In a dark place or a dark room mix with the above a 
small amount of concentrated solution of potassium 
bichromate. Coat the back of the label, which must be 
clean, with a thin layer of the mixture. Strongly press 
the label against the bottle and keep the two in close 
contact by tying with twine or otherwise. Expose to 
sunlight for some hours; this causes the cement to be 
insoluble even in hot water. 

Lim6 1 ounce av. 

White of Egg 2% ounces av. 

Plaster of Paris 5% ounces av. 

Water 1 ounce fl. 

Reduce the lime to a fine powder; mix it with the white 
of egg by trituration, forming a uniform paste. Dilute 
with water, rapidly incorporate the plaster of Paris, and 
use the cement immediately. The surfaces to be cemented 
must first be moistened with water so that the cement 
will readily adhere. The pieces must be firmly pressed 
together and kept in this position foi- about 12 hours. 



502 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

CEMENTING CELLULOID AND HARD-RUBBER ARTICLES. 

1. Celluloid articles can be mended by making a mixture 
composed of three parts of alcohol and four parts of ether. 
This mixture should be kept in a well-corked bottle, and when 
celluloid articles are to be mended, the broken surfaces are 
painted over with the alcohol and ether mixture until the sur- 
faces soften; then press together and bind and allow to dry for 
at least 24 hours. 

2. Dissolve one part of gum camphor in four parts of 
alcohol; dissolve an equal weight of shellac in such strong 
camphor solution. The cement is applied warm and the parts 
united must not be disturbed until the cement is hard. Hard- 
rubber articles are never mended to form a strong joint. 

3. Melt together equal parts of gutta percha and real 
asphaltum. The cement is applied hot, and the broken sur- 
faces pressed together and held in place while cooling. 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



CHAPTER LXXXI 

POLISHING BY TUMBLING 

FOR Caster Wheels, Checkers, Etc. — After 
these have been stained, usually by dipping, see 
that they are thoroughly dried. This is neces- 
sary, because as a rule much end wood is subjected 
to moisture, and if not dried will give trouble later. 
Provide a slow revolving tumbler; cut up paraffine 
wax into inch cubes, using one-fourth pound to each 
bushel basketful of caster wheels, etc. Allow these to 
tumble several hours, when it will be found that the 
wax is evenly distributed over the wood. The amount 
of wax is governed by the nature of the wood and 
quality of polish desired. Other waxes may be used, 
a combination of bees and parafRne. This same tumb- 
ling process when employed to smooth small articles 
will be found expedient especially in turnings that are 
to receive no finish, but should present a smooth and 
satin-like surface. 

Toys — Dipped in a mixture of cheap mineral oil 
and japan, then tumbled, will give a good surface. 

Cheaper articles, when dipped in silicate of soda, 
spread out on screens to dry, then tumbled, will give 
a remarkable finish. This silicate of soda can be col- 
ored and thus will help in producing pleasing colored 
finishes, which are inexpensive. 



PROCESS FOR 
A POSITIVE 
POLISHING 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



CHAPTER LXXXII 

POLISHES IN FURNITURE FINISHING 

IT IS well known that by means of French polishing, 
an artisan can take a piece of furniture and start- 
ing- with the bare wood can build up a bright, level, 
polished surface in a few hours. However, that finish 
will not be permanent in its brilliancy, for the hurried 
work will not wear well. This is due more to the 
nature of the materials used than to the lack of skill 
on the part of the workman. 

The Germans also have adopted a plan of building 
up a surface by a succession of varnish coats. The 
main difference of the French and German methods 
of finishing lies in the final method. By the German 
process any change in color of the wood is done in 
such a manner that the original figure of the wood 
is often wholly lost, the figure, if there were any, being 
sacrificed in the production of an even color. In 
America a strong point is made of the endeavor to 
maintain the original figure. If there were no figure 
to begin with, the American uses his best effort to 
produce a figure of a beautiful grain. 

A good polishing formula is as follows : Raw linseed 
oil and golden oil, each two and one-half gallons ; water, 
three gallons. Stir to a cream by adding slowly one- 
half gallon of acetic acid ; then add three and one-half 
gallons of water, one quart of wood alcohol, one pint 
of butter of antimony. To give this mixture a pleasing 
odor add one pint of oil of citronella. The mixture 
must be stirred continually during the additions. To 
produce a good rubbing polish add two pounds of fine 
pumice or fine rotten stone to each gallon of the above. 
Always be sure to stir the mixture thoroughly before 
removing any part for use. 

GOOD POLISH FORMULA 

Paraffine Oil — - 1 part 

Linseed Oil 1/2 part 



FRENCH 
POLISHING 



POLISHING 
FORMULA 



508 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



INEXPENSIVE 

FURNITURE 

POLISH 



FURNITURE 

CLEANER 



Butter of Antimony ...V2 part 

Vinegar 1 part 

Water 1 part 

Wood Alcohol 1 part 

Mix thoroughly. For a rubbing polish, add one 
pound of rotten stone to each gallon of the above mix- 
ture. 

Two good formulas which will make inexpensive 
furniture polish, and give you meritorious articles, are 
the following: 

FORMULA No. 1 : 

Raw Linseed Oil 1 quart 

Light Golden Oil 1 quart 

Water -— IV3 quarts 

Mix these well and add acetic acid .. 1/2 Pint 

Wood Alcohol - 1/4 pint 

Butter of Antimony 2 ounces 

A few grains of Bismark brown aniline will give it 
a nice color. The polish should always be shaken be- 
fore using. 

FORMULA No. 2 : 

Raw Linseed Oil 1 quart 

ParafRne Oil- 1 quart 

Water 1 quart 

Vinegar. .- 1 pint 

Butter of Antimony V4, pint 

Shake well. If a rubbing polish is desired add two 

ounces of powdered rotten stone to each pint of the 

polish. 

A good furniture polish and cleaner : 

Use light rubbing oil I41/2 parts 

White Vinegar 2 parts 

Water 3 parts 

Wood Alcohol 4 parts 

Butter of Antimony V2 Part 

Oil Citronella — V2 part 

To make rubbing polish, add one-half pound of 
rotten stone to each gallon of above. 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



POLISHES IN FURNITURE FINISHING 511 

PIANO FINISH POLISH 

Alcohol (grain) 10 ounces 

Benzole -25 ounces preserving 

Gum Benzoin 1/4 ounce finish on 

Gum Sandarac •_ 1/2 ounce pianos 

Mix when dissolved and use as a French polish. 

POLISH FOR BARS, COUNTERS, ETC. 

Linseed Oil (raw) 8 ounces 

Beer (stale) --8 ounces 

Muriatic Acid 1 ounce 

Grain Alcohol 1 ounce 

White of one egg. 

Mix all in a bottle larger than quantity to admit 
of shaking. Clean the work thoroughly; then apply 
with tuft of rag, and rub clean. 

Preserving the Polish. — I have often been asked 
the question by dealers as to what is the best method 
for preserving the appearance of the polish on the 
pianos which have to stand in their showrooms. The 
question is not an easy one to answer offhand, since so 
much depends on the quality of the polishing in the 
first instance. 

Inferior polish is without doubt a frequent cause of 
the troubles which dealers have to encounter in this 
respect. The secret of polishing is a good foundation. 
If the foundation is finished off too quickly and not 
allowed to stand long enough trouble is eventually 
bound to ensue. an equal 

Different woods vary, of course, in the amount of temperature 
polish required ; some soak it up so thirstily that until necessary 
they are really full up with polish the latter cannot 
stand. 

But even when the polish is perfect it is bound to 
sweat under certain circumstances, and a few general 
hints therefore will not be out of place. 

To keep pianos or any polished work in good con- 
dition it is very necessary to maintain the showrooms 
at an equal temperature and to avoid as much gas as 
possible; the fumes of the gas are damp, and in con- 
densing deposit carbon on the surfaces of the goods ex- 



the use of 
"revivers" 



512 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

posed in the shape of an oily substance, which takes up 
the dust, etc., and in time becomes hard and difficult to 
remove. 

Great care should be taken in dusting to use a very 
soft cloth in a very light jnanner (in fact it would be 
better to blow off as much as possible), so as to take 
the dust off without scratching; it is then sometimes 
found that the surface is clammy and requires reviving, 
which can only be done by practice, which is easily 
gained in a short time. Should this treatment not be 
successful a good reviver is the only thing to bring it 
up to its natural state, but if a professional polisher 
is going to touch it up he would use oil and spirit. This 
can only be successfully accomplished by an expert. 

Speaking of revivers it is well to note that we do 
not mean that revivers should contain wax, turps and 
such like ingredients, as they are entirely opposed to 
the nature of the materials used in polishes, which is 
shellac, etc. 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



CHAPTER LXXXIII 

VALUABLE RECIPES AND FORMULAS 

FOR frosted glass, letter or make your design, if 
any, with Damar varnish ; let dry and apply sugar 
of lead in linseed oil. With this process you can 
make very pretty designs and it is often used to coat frosted 
bath room windows and other windows where light is glass 
desired and no view from the exterior. 

Dissolve three tablespoonfuls of epsom salts in one 
pint of lager beer or vinegar and apply to window 
with brush or rag. As a temporary frosting, mix to- 
gether a strong hot solution of epsom salts and clear 
solution of gum arable and apply warm. 

To make imitation ground glass give the glass a 
thin coating of Damar varnish, then sprinkle it evenly 
all over with powdered pumice stone, and let stand to 
dry. This renders the glass non-transparent while per- 
mitting light to pass through. Paint with the follow- 
ing solution: 

Zinc Sulphate. 3 parts 

Magnesium Sulphate 3 parts 

Dextrin 2 parts 

Water 20 parts 

In drying the mixture crystallizes in fine needles, 
which prevents vision through the glass. 

To Make Paper Stick to Tin. — Take one-half ^^,^^,^,^ 
ounce each of nitrate of copper, chloride of copper and p^per to tin 
salammoniac, dissolve in a solution composed of one 
quart of warm water to which one-half ounce of hydro- 
chloric acid is added. 

Mix this in an earthen jar. Apply the mixture 
with a wide, flat brush. Let it stand until a white 
powder is formed over the surface, which when dry 
should be brushed off, and the surface is ready for use. 

Restoring Color to Old Mahogany. — Add half 
an ounce alkanet root in small bits to a pint of raw 
linseed oil, and when this has stood a week add a half 
ounce of powdered gum Arabic and one ounce of 



516 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



TO REMOVE 
SPECKS ON 
MAHOGANY 
FINISH 



DISCOLORED 
WOODS CANNOT 
BE REMEDIED 



shellac varnish. Let the mass stand in a bottle in a 
warm place for a week and then strain it. Wash the 
surface of the wood with slightly soapy water, rinse, 
wipe dry, and polish with the preparation, using a soft 
woolen rag or chamois skin. 

Specks on Mahogany Pianos. — The minute specks 
seen, and which greatly disfigure the surface, are 
caused by an oil that exudes from the wood, and which 
cannot be held back even with shellac. Rubbing down 
and revarnishing is the only cure. Sprinkle pulverized 
rotten stone over it; rub gently and regularly, first 
with a circular motion and then with the grain of the 
wood. When the surface has become smooth and 
bright, wipe off the rotten stone and finish as you 
would after the washing with soap and warm water. 

Stains on Wood. — Put an ounce of oxalic acid in 
one gill of boiling water, and touch the stain with it. 
If this proves ineffectual try nitric acid (sweet spirits 
of nitre) . 

Bleaching Stains. — If, after we bleach the stain 
with oxalic acid, we will sandpaper the work and apply 
a mixture of caustic lime seven parts, and sal soda one 
part, the bleaching will be greatly improved, says an 
experimenter. 

White Marks on Wax Finish. — If water is al- 
lowed to remain on waxed surfaces any length of time 
it will cause them to grow white. A manufacturer of 
wood finishing materials says to rub with a soft rag 
moistened with alcohol, after which rub on a little lin- 
seed or sweet oil. He says this will permanently re- 
move the white spot, but cautions against getting water 
on the wax, as a wax finish is not made to stand against 
water. 

Protecting a Wax Finish. — Wax finish may be 
protected against water or any form of dampness by 
the following coat: Zanzibar copal varnish six parts, 
boiled oil six parts, and turpentine 10 parts, all by 
weight, all well mixed together, then applied. While 
protecting the wax it will not destroy, but preserve, 
the waxy look. 

Discolored Woods. — Woods naturally discolored 
cannot well be remedied, though bleaching powder may 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



VALUABLE RECIPES AND FORMULAS 519 

help. Artificial or accidental discolorations may be 
moved in most cases by the application of a strong 
solution of oxalic acid, or with one part of muriatic 
acid to five parts of water. Ink spots may be treated 
with oxalic acid. A phosphoric acid, spirits of nitre, 
is another cure for ink on wood. 

Pitting of Varnish on Piano. — This may be 
remedied by rubbing- it over with a hard wax polish. 
Make this wax by melting together half an ounce 
Carnauba wax, two ounces japan wax, or white bees- 
wax will do, and two ounces ceresin wax. Put all in 
a pot and melt by placing the pot inside of another 
vessel containing hot water, then set on the stove. 
When melted add enough kerosene oil to make the 
mass, when cool, about like petroleum jelly. Test by 
placing some on a glass and letting it cool, and if it 
becomes too hard upon cooling add a little more kero- 
sene. Apply with a woolen pad, made by rolling up 
a strip of woolen-like tape. It will be necessary to 
give it two or more applications, the idea being to fill 
the little pits in the varnish. 

Sticky Pews. — The cause of pews and seats in 
churches becoming sticky is due not to the use of poor 
varnishes, though this may sometimes contribute to 
the cause, but to the damp and impure air of such 
places, where ventilation is almost nil, and the atmos- 
phere reeking with ammonia and gases. Sometimes 
the troubles come from revarnishing over greasy seats. 
In any case, where the varnish is sticky, either 
remove the varnish, or coat it over with very thin 
shellac varnish, using the brown shellac. Two thin 
coats are better than one heavy coat. Over the shellac 
you may apply a coat of best pew varnish, if desired. 
It is better to use pew varnish, as this is made with a 
view to standing the conditions met with in such a 
place. Some advise merely rubbing the sticky varnish 
with japan, but this is a very poor makeshift. 



OTHER RECIPES 
FOR COMMON 
FAULTS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



CHAPTER LXXXIV 
GROUND COLOR FOR GRAINING 

IN THE finishing room it sometimes may be neces- 
sary to do a little graining to match up certain 
parts of a piece, and it is well for the finisher to 
have at least a fair idea of how to proceed. The wood ground work 
is first coated with a mixture of the ground tints. This for graining 
is usually a flat paint of the desired tone for producing 
the flake. The following formulas will suffice in this 
work for giving the general information and it covers 
practically all of the colors that are now in vogue. 

Maple. — White lead tinted with a very little ver- 
milion and about an equal quantity of lemon chrome. 
Some prefer yellow ochre only, other ochre and raw 
umber in the proportion of four ounces ochre to one 
ounce umber to 30 pounds of lead. 

Medium Oak. — Add French ochre to white lead in 
the proportions of about 20 of lead to five of ochre. 
Add a little burnt umber. 

Light Oak and Birch. — Eighty parts of white 
lead to one, of yellow ochre produces a good ground, 
but 60 pounds of white lead, one-half pound of French 
ochre, and one ounce of lemon chrome is sometimes 
preferred. 

Dark Oak. — Sixty parts of white lead and one part 
of golden ochre may be used, or the following mixture 
if preferred : Six pounds of white lead, one pound of ^^^^ ^^ ^"^ 

T^ 1 1. i J- -V7 J.- 1 1 COLORS USED 

French ochre, two ounces medium Venetian red and 
two ounces of burnt umber. 

Satinwood. — Mix six ounces of lemon chrome to 
15 pounds of pure white lead and add a little deep 
English vermilion. 

Pollard Oak. — Tint 100 pounds of white lead with 
27 pounds of French ochre, four pounds of burnt 
umber and three and three-fourths pounds of Venetian 
red. 

Pitch Pine. — Tint 60 pounds of white lead with 



522 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

one-half pound medium Venetian red and one-fourth 
pound of French ochre. 

Italian Walnut. — One pound of French ochre 
mixed with 10 pounds of pure white lead and four 
ounces of burnt umber and four ounces medium Vene- 
tian red ; give this, ground. . 

Knotted Oak. — Sixty pounds white lead, nine 
pounds of French ochre, and three and one-half pounds 
burnt umber. 
OTHER Rosewood and Dark Mahogany. — Four pounds 

COLORS medium Venetian red, one pound of orange chrome 

yellow, and one pound of burnt umber, or a little less 
burnt umber may be used, according to the strength. 

Mahogany Dark. — Four pounds of medium Vene- 
tian red, one pound of orange chrome yellow, and one 
pound of burnt umber, or a little less burnt umber 
may be used, according to strength. 

Mahogany Light. — Mix six pounds of pure white 
lead with one pound of medium Venetian red and five 
ounces of burnt umber. 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



bassett's 
method is 
popular one 



CHAPTER LXXXV 

THE RESILVERING OF MIRRORS 

THE resilvering of mirrors is often put up to the 
finisher, especially in furniture stores away from 
manufacturing centers. The method given by 
Bassett seems to meet with universal success, and is 
here given : 

The silver on mirrors is apt to be affected by varia- 
tions in temperature causing it to contract or expand, 
and when this happens the silver falls off in small 
flakes. If the backing of paint that protects the silver 
should become loose, it may also be affected by the 
light. In nearly all cases it is far cheaper to resilver 
the mirror than to purchase a new one. 

The following is a list of the apparatus necessary 
for resilvering mirrors : 

Four glass bottles (one gallon each). 

One glass stirring-rod. 

Scales. 

Filter paper. 

One graduate (one quart). 

One china pitcher (two quarts). 

One enamel or agate-ware kettle (one gallon). 

Gas stove. 

The most important requirement for resilvering 
mirrors is a proper room in which the process is car- 
ried out. A room eight by 12 feet or so in size will be ^qqo ^ 
found large enough for ordinary work. It should be 
kept dust-proof as much as possible by covering wood 
partitions with thick cloth or canvas. All windows 
should be calked and never opened. The temperature 
of the room while silvering mirrors should be about 
100 degrees F., and it may be heated by a steam coil or 
wood stove. No gas should be burned in the room, as 
some of the incombustible matter may settle on the 
glass. A large table is placed in the center of the room 
on which the silvering is done. It is best to cover the 
table with sheet iron, coated with an acid-proof paint. 



TEMPERATURE 
SHOULD BE 



526 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



THE OPERATION 
OF RESILVERING 



USE ONLY 
RAIN OR 
DISTILLED 
WATER 



The edge of the sheet iron should be bent to form a 
narrow trough or gutter around the table. The gutter 
should be slanted to one end where all liquids are al- 
lowed to run through a small hole into a vessel placed 
on the floor. The surface of the table should be as 
level as possible. 

The first operation in resilvering is to remove the 
backing of paint that protects the silver. This is ac- 
complished by laying the mirror on several small blocks 
of wood placed on the table in the resilvering room. 
A paper should be placed under the mirror on which 
the paint is collected on being removed. A good paint 
remover is applied and allowed to soak into the paint 
lOr a short time. It is then scraped off with a piece of 
cardboard on to the paper. The paint and paper should 
be saved, as it contains some silver. The next opera- 
tion is to remove the silver. A mixture of nitric acid 
and water (six parts acid to one of water) is used for 
this purpose. After removing the silver the glass is 
rinsed off with ordinary water. Before the silvering 
solution is applied the glass is carefully polished with 
fine silver rouge and a few drops of liquid ammonia; 
all the rouge should be thoroughly wiped off by suc- 
cessively using several pieces of linen cloth. The cloth 
may be placed around a piece of felt or a smooth block 
of wood. 

The mirror is now ready for resilvering. It is laid 
on several wedges of wood placed on the table in the 
silvering room, and made perfectly level. As pre- 
viously stated, the temperature of the room should be 
about 100 degrees F. To ascertain if the glass is level, 
hot water is poured upon its surface. When the glass 
is perfectly level, the water will not flow off and in 
that position it will retain the silvering solution. 

In making up the solutions for silvering only rain 
or distilled water must be used. If rain water is used 
it should be carefully filtered. Solution No. 1 is made 
as follows: 

Water 2 qt. 

Silver Nitrate 13 pwt. 

When the silver is thoroughly dissolved add slowly 
liquid ammonia of 26 degrees until the solution turns 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



THREE 

SOLUTIONS 

USED 



THE RESILVERING OF MIRRORS 529 

perceptibly brown. When this point is reached, con- 
tinue adding- the ammonia drop by drop until the white 
color of the solution is restored. Great caution must 
be used in not adding to much ammonia, as the color 
changes rapidly. A separate solution of 

Water 2 qt. 

Silver Nitrate 11 pwt. 

is now made up and the two solutions mixed together. 
The whole is then allowed to stand for about 12 hours, 
when it is carefully filtered. This solution should be 
kept in a large bottle and labeled Solution No. 1. 
Solution No. 2 is made up as follows : 

Water .1 gal. 

Silver Nitrate... 8 pwt. 

Rochelle Salts 8 pwt. 

This solution should be boiled for several minutes. 
Like solution No. 1 it should be allowed to stand about 
12 hours and then carefully filtered. 

SILVERING THE GLASS 
Four ounces of solution to every square foot of 
glass is required. Equal portions of solutions No. 1 
and 2 are carefully measured out in the graduate and 
mixed. The solution may be poured upon the glass 
by using a large china pitcher. After the two solu- 
tions are mixed they should be immediately applied 
to the glass. If they are allowed to stand for any 
length of time, good results cannot be produced. As 
previously stated, the glass is made perfectly level by 
using small wooden wedges and pouring hot water t^f^J^^^ 
upon its surface. When it is perfectly level it will 
retain the water on its surface, this being due to capil- 
lary attraction. The glass should be left covered with 
hot water until the silvering solution is applied. Be- 
fore pouring on the silvering solution the water is al- 
lowed to drain off by gently tipping up the glass. The 
glass should be carefully laid back in the same position 
and the silvering solution immediately poured on the 
glass for 30 minutes or longer, if desired. The residue 
is >then poured off and the silvered surface of the glass 
is washed off with ordinary cold water. The glass is 
now allowed to dry thoroughly and the silvered surface 



SILVERING 
SOLUTION 



530 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



COATING OVER 
WITH PAINT 



ABSOLUTE 

CLEANLINESS 

NEEDED 



is then coated over with a suitable paint. The writer 
uses a paint made up as follows: 

Turpentine Asphaltum 1 quart 

Damar Varnish..... 4 ounces 

White Lead 2 ounces 

Turpentine 3 ounces 

The white lead is dissolved in the turpentine, and 
all the ingredients are thoroughly mixed together. The 
paint should be applied carefully with a soft brush, 
preferably a camel's hair brush. When the paint is 
sufficiently dry, the face of the mirror is examined and 
all silver or paint that may have adhered to it is re- 
moved and the glass polished with a little rouge and 
a few drops of liquid ammonia, using a cloth. The 
mirror is then ready for framing. 

Occasionally the jobber is called upon to resilver 
mirrors that are made with mercury. It is not advis- 
able to remove the mercury with an acid, as the heat 
generated will often crack the glass on account of the 
large amount of mercury being present. It may be 
scraped off with a thin piece of wood. Mercury has 
been used extensively in the past in making mirrors, 
but it is not now employed for this purpose. Some at- 
tempts have been made to use aluminum, on account 
of its cheapness, but the results are not as satisfactory 
as when silver is employed. 

Remember that absolute cleanliness is the main 
thing in this work. Your solutions commence to pre- 
cipitate as soon as they are mixed, so use them at once. 
You do not need to use oiled cloth to do this work but 
it is better and quicker than wedging up and leveling 
glass with water and will not drain dry as it does when 
water starts to run over edge of glass. Experience will 
make you perfect in leveling a straight glass but I 
always use the oil cloth and strips cup-fashion. 

Be sure to boil all water before putting in solu- 
tion. Be very careful in handling plated glass as a 
finger mark will turn it black. Should there be any 
thin places in the silvering or plating, pour on more 
solution, or if a piece of dirt lodged on the glass pour 
solution on it and wash it over on the plated glass 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF TPIE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



THE RESILVERING OF MIRRORS 533 

where it is already silvered. Use up one batch or two 
of solution practicing before you try a large mirror. 
Then all these little things that cause failure will be 
plainer to you. Keep cool and take time in all this 
work until you become familiar with it. 

Sometimes it becomes necessary to plate a glass 
two or three times to cover all places. I use three 
solutions in most all cases, but No. 1 and 2 are suf- 
ficient unless the glass looks clouded on back. Ex- 

•11 X 11 1 J.1 i.1 • 1 • J MORE OF THE 

perience will soon tell you whether the job is good or pj^q^edure 
not by looking at the back of the plating. If not clear 
and good use No. 1 and 3 as described. Nitrate of 
silver must be kept in colored bottles as exposure to 
light ruins it. It takes four ounces of solution to do 
one square foot of glass, that is, two ounces from each 
bottle. Stir solutions together good with glass paddle 
before pouring on. 

Just after pouring on take hold of one end of the 
table and shake or agitate the solution for three to 
five minutes, as this will wash any specks around until 
solution acts some on the glass and prevents small, 
black specks. This can only be done when the tray 
system is used. In ordinary work I hardly ever agitate 
the solution. Allow to stand from 30 to 40 minutes. 
Shellac can be used to first coat in back before hand- 
ling it if you prefer it to turpentine. I use turpentine 
because if bottom edge of glass is not entirely drained 
dry, the brush pushes the water off without bad effects. 
Never heat the glass very hot or the silvering will dis- j^^,^^ ^^^^ 
color. These instructions are for cold resilvering. To discolor 
test water to be used, drop a few grains of nitrate of silvering 
silver in three ounces of it. If it remains clear, it is 
all right. If it turns milky boil water before using. 
When doing an oval or round glass I use a piece of 
leather belting or hose to make the tray vdth. By so 
doing you can fit any size glass instantly. 

Three part solution 1-2-3 requires no special heat, 
except in extreme cold weather. It can be used in all 
kinds of work. 

Solution 1. — Put 306 grains nitrate of silver in 
glass graduate with three ounces distilled or boiled 
water. Dissolve, using piece of glass as paddle. Drop 



534 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



MAKE UP 

AND USE 
OF THREE 
SOLUTIONS 



in stronger ammonia drop by drop. The silver solu- 
tion will become muddy. Continue to drop in carefully 
until solution is just clear. Be careful not to use too 
much ammonia. Dissolve 250 grains silver nitrate in 
another glass in 16 ounces distilled or boiled water. 
Pour contents of both glasses in the one-gallon bottle 
and add enough distilled water to make one gallon. 
Label this bottle or glass jar No. 1. 

Solution 2. — Put one-half gallon distilled or boiled 
water in the porcelain lined vessel. Dissolve 96 grains 
Rochelle salts in this. Boil strong one minute, then 
add 96 grains nitrate of silver, dissolve in three ounces 
water. Boil 10 minutes. When cool put in half gallon 
bottle and fill up. Make a full half gallon. Label 
bottle No. 2. 

Solution 3. — Make same as solution No. 2, only 
use 144 grains Rochelle salts. Label bottle No. 3. 

To use, take equal parts No. 1 and 2 for first coat. 
For second coat to clear up silver plating, take equal 
parts No. 1 and 3. Let each coat stand on glass from 
30 to 40 minutes. Always rinse off first coat before 
applying second coat. Always use distilled or boiled 
water for solutions. Let solutions stand over night 
just as you made them. Then filter, using a funnel and 
good grade filter paper. I use two sets of bottles. 
Make in one and filter into another. Be sure to get 
stronger ammonia from the druggist. 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



CHAPTER LXXXVI 

WORKING WITH GLASS AND CELLULOID 

TO PREVENT dimming of show windows, show 
cases, etc., mix olein-potash soap with about 3 per 
cent of glycerine and a little oil of turpentine. 

Lettering on Glass. — White lettering on glass and white 
mirrors produces a rich effect. Dry zinc, chemically lettering on 
pure, should be used. It can be obtained in any first- glass 
class paint store and is inexpensive. To every tea- 
spoonful of zinc, 10 drops of mucilage should be added. 
The two should be worked up into a thick paste, water 
being gradually added until the mixture is about the 
consistency of thick cream. The paint should then be 
applied with a camel's hair brush. 

Another useful paint for this purpose is Chemnitz 
white. If this distemper color is obtained in a jar, 
care should be exercised to keep water standing above 
the color to prevent drying. By using mucilage as a 
sizing these colors will adhere to the glass until it is 
washed off. Both mixtures are equally desirable for 
lettering on block card board. 

Any distemper color may be employed on glass 
without in any way injuring it. An attractive com- 
bination is, first to letter the sign with Turkey red, 
and then to outline the letters with a very narrow 
white stripe. The letter can be rendered still more 
attractive by shading one side in black. ^„.T.„,,;,xT-n»T 

*' ° ORNAMENTAL 

Spatter Work. — Some lettering which appears work 
very difficult to the uninitiated is in fact easily pro- 
duced. The beautiful effect of lettering and ornamen- 
tation in the form of foliage or conventional scrolls in 
a speckled ground is simple and can be produced with 
little effort. Pressed leaves and letters or designs cut 
from newspapers or magazines may be tacked or pasted 
on card. 

For Bronze Lettering the following is the best 
method for card work. Write with asphaltum thinned 
with turpentine or naphtha until it flows easily, and. 



538 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



BRONZE 
LETTERING 



CEMENTING 
CELLULOID ; 
CLEANING 
MIRRORS 



when nearly dry, dust bronze powder over the letters. 
When the letters are perfectly dry tap the card, shake 
off the extra bronze, and it will leave the letters clean 
and sharp. The letters should be made with a camel's 
hair brush, and not with the automatic pen, as oil 
paints do not work satisfactorily with these pens. This 
same method may apply for signs on glass. 

To Drill Holes in Glass. — Secure a square file 
and grind off the small end diagonally at an angle of 
about 45 degrees. Grind from corner to corner, so as 
to leave a diamond shaped surface which will form a 
sharp point at the end. To use, place blunt end of file 
in an ordinary bit stock. Lay glass on a perfectly 
smooth surface with a piece of cloth under place where 
hole is to be drilled. Take some soft putty and make 
a small ring around on glass where hole is to be and 
fill the cup-like place with turpentine. Proceed to 
make a hole as you would with an ordinary bit in wood, 
but use less pressure. A clean cut hole can easily be 
made in glass of any thickness in this manner. 

Cementing Celluloid. — Make a solution of five 
parts, by weight, of celluloid and 16 parts, by weight, 
each of amyl acetate, acetone, and sulphuric ether. 
Various formulas have been given but this is the best 
from our experience. This will also act as a cement 
for sticking celluloid to wood. To color celluloid black : 
First dip into pure water, then into a solution of nitrate 
of silver; let dry in the light. Yellow, first immerse 
in a solution of nitrate of lead and then in a concen- 
trated solution of chromate of potash. Brown, dip into 
a solution of permanganate of potash strongly alkaline 
by the addition of soda. Blue, dip into a solution of 
indigo neutralized by the addition of silver. Red. first 
dip into a diluted bath of nitric acid, then into an 
ammoniacal solution of carmine. Green, dip into a 
solution of verdigris. Aniline colors may also be em- 
ployed but they are less permanent. 

To Clean Mirrors. — Rub the mirror with a ball 
of soft paper slightly dampened with metholated 
spirits, then with a duster sprinkled with whiting, and 
finally polish with clean paper or a wash leather. This 
treatment will make the glass beautifully bright. 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



BE PROTECTED 
IN PLATING 
OPERATION 



CHAPTER LXXXVII 

PREVENTING BRASS FROM TARNISHING 

THERE is a large variety of cheap brass goods 
manufactured which will not warrant anything 
but the cheapest material being used on them. 
They are made of solid brass and of brass-plated steel. ^Rass must 
When completed and assembled they are dipped, if of 
solid brass, or if brass plated, left in the bright brass 
as they come from the plating tank. In either case, the 
brass must be protected from the air, otherwise it 
would discolor in a short time and finally turn black. 

Now the goods are so cheap that the use of regular 
lacquer on them would be out of the question, and as no 
finish is required and only a protection is necessary, the 
cheapest material for the purpose must be employed. 
It is customary in the metal trades which make these 
classes of goods to use a very weak shellac varnish for 
the purpose and it has been in use for mhny years. 
The following proportions are used : 

Denatured Alcohol 1 gallon 

Flake Shellac 1 ounce 

Dissolve the shellac in the alcohol and then strain 
it through cloth to remove the sticks and dirt in it 
and it will be ready for use. 

The brass goods after dipping and drying are im- 
mersed in the shellac and then dried. The goods should 
be warm when used. The heat of the drying over will, 
of course, expel the excess of alcohol and leave a film 
of shellac on the surface for the protection of the brass. 

The drip on the goods will not bother one, as the 
shellac is so weak that it will dry right off, although a 
slight spot will be left. The goods are so cheap, how- 
ever, that a perfect surface is not expected and pro- 
tection against tarnishing is all that is required. 

By dissolving a greater or less amount of shellac in 
the alcohol, a stronger or weaker material may be 
obtained, but it should be used weak in order to dry 
fast and give an invisible film on surface of the brass. 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



CHAPTER LXXXVIII 

AN ACID PROOF TABLE TOP 

FORMULA No. 1 : Copper sulphate, one part ; po- 
tassium chlorate, one part; water, eight parts. 
Boil until salts are dissolved. rT>i>n/.iTT a vt.t, 

FORMULA FOR 

Formula No. 2 : Aniline hydrochlorate, three parts ; acid proof 
water, 20 parts. table top 

Or if more readily procurable: Aniline, six parts; 
hydrochlorate acid, nine parts; water, 50 parts. 

By the use of a brush, two coats of solution No. 1 
are applied while hot; the second coat as soon as the 
first is dry. Then two coats of solution No. 2, and the 
wood allowed to dry thoroughly. Later, a coat of raw 
linseed oil is to be applied, using a cloth instead of a 
brush, in order to get a thinner coat of the oil. 

A writer in the Journal of Applied Microscopy 
states that he has used this method upon some old 
laboratory tables which had been finished in the usual 
way, the wood having been filled, oiled and varnished. 
After scraping off the varnish down to the wood, the 
solutions were applied, and the result was very satis- 
factory. 

After some experimentations, the formula was 
modified without materially affecting the cost and, ap- 
parently increasing the resistance of the wood to the 
action of strong acids and alkalies. The modified for- 
mula follows: A MODIFIED 
T o 1 1- i- A u. FORMULA 

Iron Sulphate 4 parts 

Copper Sulphate 4 parts 

Potassium Permanganate 8 parts 

Water q. s. .- 100 parts 

or 

Aniline - 12 parts 

Hydrochloric Acid 18 parts 

Water q. s ...100 parts 

or 

Aniline Hydrochlorate 15 parts 

Water q. s 100 parts 



EBONIZING 
THE TOP 



544 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 

Solution No. 2 has not been changed, except to 
arrange the parts per hundred. The method of appli- 
cation is the same, except that after solution No. 1 has 
dried, the excess of the solution which has dried upon 
the surface of the wood is thoroughly rubbed off before 
the application of solution No. 2. The black color does 
not appear at once, but usually requires a few hours 
before becoming ebony black. The linseed oil may be 
diluted with turpentine without disadvantage and, af- 
ter a few applications, the surface will take on a dull 
and not displeasing polish. The table tops are easily 
cleaned by washing with water or suds after a course 
of work is completed, and the application of another 
coat of oil puts them in excellent order for another 
course of work. Strong acids or alkalies, when spilled, 
if soon wiped off, have scarcely a perceptible effect. 

A slate or tile top is expensive not only in its 
original cost, but also as a aestroyer of glassware. 
Wood tops, when painted, oiled or paraffined, have 
objectionable features, the latter especially in warm 
weather. Old table tops, after the paint or oil is 
scraped off down to the wood, take the above finish 
nearly as well as the new wood. 

To make wood acid and chlorine proof, take six 
parts of wood tar and 12 pounds rosin, and melt them 
together in an iron kettle, after which stir in eight 
pounds finely powdered brick dust. The damaged parts 
must be cleaned perfectly and dried, whereupon they 
may be painted over with the warm preparation or 
filled up and drawn off, leaving the film on the inside. 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



CHAPTER LXXXIX 

PAINT, VARNISH AND ENAMEL REMOVERS 

THE writer wishes to state it has long been his 
opinion that a grave error has been made by 
many finishing departments of the larger manu- 
factories in guarding the details which are so valuable 
to the other industries. By other industries are meant 
concerns making chairs, others making sideboards, and 
the various lines ultimately arriving on one dealer's 
sales floor. The results have shown variance in shade, 
no matter how hard the maker strived to get the shade 
identical. It is almost an impossibility unless the more 
detailed information be at hand. What are the results? 
Mrs. Brown selects a dining room table, made in 
X, a sideboard made in Y, and chairs made in Z, only 
to find that there is not the uniformity of shade that 
there should be. This is where the salesman encoun- 
ters difficulty. It is a condition that should not exist; 
it is a condition that does not help the industry; and 
the reader need only attend a salesmen's meeting to 
obtain conformation. 

Foreman finishers have been prone to regard their 
formulas as secrets. These men have kept the finish- 
ing department behind the times. Had there been a 
free interchange of information, the possibility would 
have been at least greater harmony in the finished 
product. 

VARNISH AND PAINT REMOVER 
Dissolve 20 parts of caustic soda (98 per cent) 
in 100 parts of water; mix the solution with 20 parts 
of mineral oil, and stir in a kettle provided with 
mechanical stirrer, until the emulsion is complete. 
Now add, with stirring, 20 parts of sawdust and pass 
the whole through a paint mill to obtain a uniform 
intermixture. Apply the paste moist. 

REMOVE VARNISH FROM METAL 
To remove old varnish from metal it suffices to dip 



HOW VARIANCF 

IN SHADE 
IS PRODUCED 



REMOVING 

OIL AND PAINT 



548 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



ANOTHER 
REMOVER 



REMOVING 
ENAMEL AND 
TIN SOLDER 



the articles into equal parts of ammonia and alcohol 
(95 per cent). 

TO REMOVE WATER STAINS FROM VARNISHED 
FURNITURE 
Pour olive oil into a dish and scrape a little v^hite 
wax into it. This mixture should be heated until the 
wax melts and rub sparingly on the stains. Finally, 
rub the surface with a linen rag until it is restored to 
brilliancy. 

REMOVING VARNISH, ETC. 
A patent has been taken out in England for a liquid 
for removing varnish, lacquer, tar and paint. The 
composition is made by mixing four ounces of benzole, 
three ounces of fusel oil, and one ounce of alcohol. It 
is stated by the inventor that this mixture, if applied 
to a painted or varnished surface, will make the sur- 
face quite clean in less than 10 minutes, and that a 
paint soaked brush "as hard as iron" can be made as 
soft and pliable as new by simply soaking for an hour 
or so in the mixture. 

TO REMOVE ENAMEL AND TIN SOLDER 
Pour enough oil of vitrol over powdered fluorspar 
in an earthen vessel to cover the parts from which 
hydrofluoric acid is generated. Dip the article by the 
use of a vdre into the liquid until the enamel or the 
tin is eaten away or dissolved, which will not injure 
the article at all. The action will be more rapid if the 
liquid is heated. Always do the work in the open air 
and do not inhale fumes as they are highly injurious to 
the health ; do not get any liquid on the skin as hydro- 
fluoric acid is a dangerous poison. It must be kept in 
earthen or leaden vessels as it will destroy glass. 

REMOVING PAINT AND VARNISH FROM WOOD 
The following compound is given as one which will 

clean paint or varnish from wood or stone without 

injuring the material: 

Flour or Wood Pulp 385 parts 

Hydrochloric Acid 450 parts 

Bleaching Powder 160 parts 

Turpentine 5 parts 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PAINT, VARNISH AND ENAMEL REMOVERS 551 

This mixture is applied to the surface and left on 
for some time. It is then brushed off, and takes the 
paint away with it. It keeps moist quite long enough 
to be easily removed after it has acted. 

PASTE FOR REMOVING OLD PAINT OR 
VARNISH COATS 

1. Sodium Hydrate 5 parts 

Soluble Soda Glass. 3 parts 

Tni -D 4. n A. PASTE THAT 

Flour Paste 6 parts ^^^,r..,^c 

TTT i .. , REMOVES 

Water 4 parts old paint 

2. Soap 10 parts 

Potassium Hydrate 7 parts 

Potassium Silicate 2 parts 

TO REMOVE OLD ENAMEL 
Lay the articles horizontally in a vessel containing 
a concentrated solution of alum and boil them. The 
solution should be just sufficient to cover the pieces. 
In 20 or 25 minutes the old enamel will fall into dust, 
and the article can be polished with emery. If narrow 
and deep vessels are used, the operation will require 
more time. 

TO CHANGE A FINISH 
Hardly a factory exists that does not have occasion 
to use a varnish remover, but still a greater demand 
exists for spasmodic use of this article in the retail 
furniture store. In the former it is often called upon 
because a finish has gone wrong, or the shade is not 
as ordered, or a piece finished one way and in stock changing a 
would be found preferable to change the finish rather finish 
than to run a new one through the factory. In the 
latter, we will say that golden oak chairs are on the 
floor, but Mrs. Brown would like them in Early English 
— to match a certain dining room table that particu- 
larly struck her fancy. It is a well-known fact that 
the larger furniture stores have a finisher, whose duty 
is to do this transformation act. He needs a bit of 
varnish remover, and with formulas at both of these 
places it is an easy matter to prepare this commodity 
when required. 



552 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



THE FORMULAS 
THAT WILL 
DO IT 



HOW TO CLEAN 
UP A HARD 
BRUSH 



Here, then, are two formulas, either one of which 
may be used with success: 

Benzole 5 quarts 

Acetone 2V2 pints 

Carbon Bisulphide V2 pint 

Paraffine Wax 2 ounces 

Mix in order given, or 

Benzole 1 gallon 

Fusel Oil 1 pint 

Acetone 1 pint 

Paraffine Wax II/2 ounces 

One has only to get the market price on these 
articles and figure the cost of a gallon to convince him- 
self that the formula is an asset. That either of these 
formulas will do the work is a fact readily established. 

TO CLEAN BRUSHES AND VESSELS OF 
DRY PAINT 

The cleaning of the brushes and vessels in which 
the varnish or oil paint have dried is usually done by 
boiling with soda solution. This frequently spoils the 
brushes or cracks the vessels, if of glass; besides, the 
process is rather slow and dirty. A more suitable 
remedy is amyl acetate, which is a liquid with a pleas- 
ant odor of fruit drops, used mainly for dissolving 
and cementing celluloid. If amyl acetate is poured 
over a paint brush the varnish or hardened paint 
dissolves almost immediately and the brush is ren- 
dered serviceable at once. If necessary, the process is 
repeated. For cleaning vessels shake the liquid about 
in them, which softens the paint so it can be readily 
removed with paper; in this manner much labor can 
be saved. 

The amyl acetate can easily be removed from the 
brushes, etc., by alcohol or oil of turpentine. 

TO REMOVE OLD OIL, PAINT OR 

VARNISH COATS 

1. Apply a mixture of about five parts of potassium 

silicate (water glass, 36 per cent), about one part soda 

lye (40 per cent), and one part of ammonia. The 

composition dissolves the old varnish coat, as well as 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PAINT, VARNISH AND ENAMEL REMOVERS 555 

the paint, down to the bottom. The varnish coatings 

which are to be removed may be brushed off or left 

for days in a hardened state. Upon being thoroughly 

moistened with water, the old varnish may be readily 

washed off, the lacquer as well as the oil paint coming 

off completely. The ammonia otherwise employed dis- another 

solves the varnish, but not the paint. paint 

2. Apply a mixture of one part oil of turpentine 
and two parts of ammonia. This is effective, even if 
the coatings withstand the strongest lye. The two 
liquids are shaken in a bottle until they mix like milk. 
The mixture is applied to the coating with a little 
oakum; after a few minutes the old paint can be 
wiped off. 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



CHAPTER XC 

WOOD PUTTY AND FILLERS 

BY MIXING some sawdust of the wood that is to 
be puttied with glue-size and coloring, a filler for 
nail holes, etc., may be made that will defy de- 
tection, if skillfully used. This is the common cement making wood 
or putty used for the purpose, but there are others, pj^lers 

A very hard cement may be made by melting an 
ounce of brown rosin and an ounce of beeswax in an 
iron pan, and, when the two substances are perfectly 
melted, add any desired coloring, say Venetian red, 
yellow ochre, and so on. This cement must be used 
while hot, for it will become hard as stone upon cooling 
and will adhere perfectly to the wood. 

A sawdust cement may be made by dissolving one 
ounce of the best cabinet glue in 16 ounces of water — 
hot, of course — and when the glue has dissolved and 
the size has been allowed to become cold, stir in some 
sawdust of the right kind (that of the wood that is to be 
filled, or coloring may be added), then add some whit- 
ing, to form a putty. This makes a very satisfactory 
cement. 

A cement may be made of fresh dry slacked lime 
one part, rye flour two parts, with enough raw linseed 
oil to form a putty; varnish may be used instead of 
the oil, making the cement tougher. Add any desired 
coloring. cements for 

Still another cement : Add together equal parts of fillers 
red lead, white lead, litharge and pulverized chalk, all 
dry, and mix into a putty with raw linseed oil and a 
little varnish. 

CABINETMAKER'S STOPPING 
Cabinetmaker's stopping is made as follows : Place 
a tablespoonful of gum shellac, a teaspoonful of pul- 
verized rosin and a bit of beeswax, the size of a hulled 
walnut, all into a cup or small iron pot, and place on 
fire to melt ; then it may be used like sealing wax. Any 



558 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



stopping for 
cabinet- 
maker's WORK 



CRACK 
FILLERS 



desired coloring may be added to match the wood it is 
to be used on. The stick form, when wanted for use. 
may be softened by holding in the blaze of a candle and 
allowing the melted portion to run into the crack or 
device it is desired to fill. An electric soldering iron 
is ideal for this purpose. The filling may be leveled 
off with a chisel or painter's putty knife. 

HARDWOOD CEMENT 

On hardwood finish, when it is desired to stop nail 
or other holes, etc., it is better to do it after one or two 
coats of shellac or other coating have been applied. 
The idea is to allow the shellac or other coating to 
bring out the color of the wood as it will appear in the 
finish, when you can match that color with your cement. 
If anything, the putty or cement should be' a trifle 
darker than the wood, for the wood will become slightly 
darker in time, and then the putty will be just right. 

Whiting putty for hardwood finish should be made 
from dry white lead, not whiting, for the lead gives 
clearer color where the cement is to be colored, besides 
which the white lead putty, especially if a little varnish 
is added, will not shrink as whiting putty will. Some, 
however, advise the use of a little whiting, too, though 
I do not know why. A good formula for such a putty 
would be as follows: Dry white lead, three-fourths 
and best Gilder's whiting, one-fourth, all mixed to a 
stiff paste with boiled linseed oil, or raw oil and a little 
rubbing varnish. 

HARDWOOD CRACK FILLER 

This crack filler can be used on any wood without 
discoloring the wood, that is, on light wood. For dark 
wood you will perhaps have to color it a little to match 
the wood. Where the work is to be stained it will take 
the color of stain. 

Cornstarch 1 part 

Wheat Flour 1 part 

Japan Drier 1 part 

Linseed Oil 1 part 

Mix the flour and starch first. Then stir in the 
japan drier to which has been added the linseed oil. 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



W OOD PUTTY AND FILLERS 561 

and mix as thick as putty or to be in easy working 
shape. It is intended for large cracks and openings. 
It must, however, be given plenty of time to dry. If 
applied before the piece is finished, it will take the 
stain, but if it is to be used on finished work, it should 
be colored with pigment or oil soluble colors. 

ANOTHER HARDWOOD CRACK FILLER 

Dissolve one ounce of borax in one-half pint of 
water; mix four ounces of fine hardwood sawdust, 
eight ounces of silex and one ounce of stucco ; pour two qn mahogany 
ounces of boiled linseed oil drop by drop into the borax 
mixture so that it creams; then beat the dry powder 
and the liquid into a paste. 

FINE CRACKS IN MAHOGANY 
Mix up some dry Venetian red with thick gum 
Arabic mucilage into a putty, and press this well into 
the cracks. The same remedy will apply to other 
woods, observing only the color the putty should be. 



FOR WORK 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



CHAPTER XCI 

FOR THE CLEANING OF LEATHER 

THE following formulas and methods are recom- 
mended for cleaning all kinds of leathers which 
are to be redressed with polish lacquer or shellac. 

When the color has been removed in spots or around cleaning 
the edges, etc., from wear or otherwise, replace it by leather; 
preparing a dye that matches the original shade. It ^^^^^^^^ 
will be found, in most cases, that a water soluble aniline 
will do the work. Then apply a strong solution to the 
worn portion and go over the entire surface. This will 
produce a uniform color. This will be held and brought 
out with a coat of lacquer, wax polish, or thin shellac. 
Spirit colors are good where the leather is not sub- 
jected to strong light. In this case, the color can be put 
in the lacquer or shellac coat. Here are some formulas 
which may be used in preparing stains of this kind and 
for this purpose. 

For Tan or Russet Leather and Light Colors. — 
Tragacanth, two drams; oxalic acid, three drams; 
water, 32 fluid ounces. Mix and dissolve. The liquid 
should be colored yellowish with aniline yellow or saf- 
fron. 

For Black and Dark Colored Leather. — Yellow 
wax, four avoirdupois ounces ; raw linseed oil, six fluid 
ounces ; oil of turpentine, 20 fluid ounces ; soap, two 
and one-half avoirdupois ounces ; hot water, 28 fluid "^^^^^^"^ 
ounces. Melt the wax at a gentle heat, then cautiously 
incorporate the two oils. The soap which may be the 
ordinary yellow bar should be in shavings and then be 
dissolved in water. Now mix the two liquids, adding 
sufl^cient nigrosine to color. Without the nigrosine 
the mixture may be used to color tan leathers. 

For a Combination Preparation. — Yellow wax 
four ounces ; potassium carbonate, four drams ; rosin 
soap, two drams ; oil of turpentine, eight ounces ; aniline 
yellow (phosphine), four grains; water q, s. To 12 
ounces of water contained in a suitable pot, add the 



564 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



PASTE AND 
POLISH HELPS 



WATER 

DRESSING 



wax and the soap and scrapings, together with the 
potassium carbonate, and boil until a smooth, creamy- 
mass is obtained. Remove the heat ; add the turpentine 
and the dye, the last named having been dissolved in 
alcohol. Mix thoroughly and add sufficient water to 
make the product measure 24 ounces. 

The paste which is used with the liquid application 
is composed of yellow wax and rosin, thinned with 
petrolatum 12 parts, mixed according to art. 

A simpler form of the liquid polish is made by dis- 
solving equal parts of yellow wax and palm oil in three 
parts of oil of turpentine : 

Yellow Wax or Ceresin 3 ounces 

Spermaceti 1 ounce 

Oil of Turpentine 11 ounces 

Asphalt Varnish 1 ounce 

Borax 80 grains 

Frankfort Black ... 1 ounce 

Prussian Blue 2V2 drams 

Oil of Mirbane I14 drams 

Melt the wax, add the borax, and stir until a kind 
of jelly has been formed ; in another pan melt the sper- 
maceti ; add the varnish, previously mixed with the 
turpentine ; stir well and add the wax ; lastly, add the 
colors, mix well and incorporate the oil of mirbane. 

For the preparation of the water dressings, as a 
general proposition, only those waxes are available 
which are capable of being emulsified, including car- 
nauba; beeswax, japan and insect wax and shellac. 
Paraffine, ceresin and mineral waxes are not available. 
In order to produce an emulsion, it is necessary to use 
a small amount of neutral soap in addition to the re- 
quired amount of alkali, though care must be taken 
to avoid an excess of soap, as this would make the 
resulting paste too readily soluble in water. Dress- 
ings of this class are made by heating the soap, alkali, 
wax and water to nearly the boiling point of water, 
stirring constantly until a uniform milky mixture is 
produced which, on cooling, solidifies into a mass of 
the consistency of an ointment. 

Particularly in furniture store repair shops, is 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FOR THE CLEANING OF LEATHER 567 

the finisher called upon to refinish leather, sometimes 
to replace the color and the outer dressing. 

Where the leather is worn and roughened, coat with 
a glue size, which acts as a filler for this porous leather. 
It must be remembered that should a stain coat be put 
on this roughened surface the absorption of color would 
be so great as to cause a much darker shade. After 
the leather has been sized, prepare a stain, either a 
water stain or a spirit stain that will match, and apply 
it lightly until all of the roughened leather has been 
stained to match. When this is thoroughly dry, give a f^yj^, 
thin coat of shellac or lacquer. Where shellac is used 
it is better to bring the leather to a polish by repeated 
coats of thin wax. The oil in the wax combines with 
the shellac in sufficient quantity to render it elastic, so 
that it will not break or crack with the bending of the 
leather. 

On upholstered furniture, particularly where the 
edges have been badly worn or broken, it is well to 
attempt to rearrange the springs in such a manner 
that the folds will come elsewhere. In other words, 
so that the creases and folds of the leather will change 
and the repaired part not be put to the extreme use 
that it had been originally. 

Color may be incorporated either in the shellac or 
the lacquer, and this acts as a staining and filling coat 
all at once. If it is desired that either the shellac or 
the lacquer coat shall be the finishing coat, then give 
uncolored coats as such. Never leave as the final coat 
one that has been colored, as it is apt to crock, and as 
spirit colors are partially soluble in water, stains are 
apt to occur when any moisture comes in contact with 
the leather, which, of course, necessitates a final coat- 
ing. 

Leather upholstering frequently is bruised on the 
sales floor, in the stock rooms, or in transit. Where 
the bruise is slight, this treatment often will be found 
sufficient : Take a small piece of leather of some color, 
grained, moisten slight on the grained side, and work 
easily over the bruise. Polish with dry leather. 

When the scratch is deep it should be touched lightly 
with oil stain of color to match. Rub just before dry- 



REFINISHING 

ROUGH 

LEATHER 



AVOID COLOR 
IN LAST COAT 
OF FINISH 



568 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



OTHER HINTS 
FOR CARE AND 
FINISH OF 
LEATHER 



ing with the smooth side of a soft piece of leather. 

Leather upholstered chairs should never be per- 
mitted to stand long near stoves or radiators. Heat 
dries the finish, which then is easily cracked. When 
leather shows signs of so "aging," the following treat- 
ment will rejuvenate it: 

Mix four parts of water with one of rich cream. 
Dip rag in this and apply to leather, rubbing the mix- 
ture well into the grain. Wipe off immediately after 
application with warm rag. Little or no pressure 
should be used in the rubbing to dry if the dull finish 
is to be retained. 

This treatment may profitably be given to the 
leather chairs in the home at housecleaning time. The 
housewife should know also of the livening effect of a 
little warm water and soap suds, quickly rubbed off 
with a warm rag, on her leather upholstering. 

Leather chairs should never be permitted to remain 
long on display near windows where the sun can strike 
them, as all leather will fade to some extent if exposed 
continually to sunlight. The grain leather is the more 
quickly affected. 

Leather goods received in the winter should always 
be allowed at least 24 hours in a warm room before 
unpacking or handling. After exposure to cold, leather 
is stiff and liable to crack when handled. 

A little usage now and then is better for the leather 
stock than long periods without usage at all. 

Experts frequently use kerosene oil to renovate 
leather. This is a difficult treatment to administer 
properly and for the average dealer is too likely to 
result disastrously. For this reason it is here omitted. 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



CHAPTER XCII 

FOR MATCHING FINISHES 

ONE difficulty in matching is often found in the 
shellac. The piece you are trying to match may 
have been coated with orange shellac, whereas, 
you are using white, or vice versa. Here is a simple formula for 

test : MATCHING 

Coat piece of glass with orange shellac and an- finishes 
other with white shellac. Then look through them, say 
at a piece of fumed oak, and the difference will con- 
vince you at once that the shellac coat in finishing 
plays an important part. 

SUBSTANTIAL FILLER FOR OAK 

Where silex, the accepted proper material for pro- 
ducing filler, cannot be obtained, the finisher may em- 
ploy the formula below. It is, however, recommended 
that in doing so twenty-four hours drying time be 
allowed and the work, when properly cleaned, be given 
a good coat of shellac. 

FORMULA: 

Bolted English Whiting 5 pounds 

Calcined Plaster 2 pounds 

Dry Burnt Sienna 1 ounce 

Dry French Yellow .1/2 ounce 

Raw Oil 1 quart 

Benzine Spirits 1 pint 

White Shellac 1/2 pint 

DIRECTIONS: 

Mix well and apply with brush, rub in with 
excelsior or tow and clean off with rag. 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



CHAPTER XCIII 



DENTS, DEFECTS AND KNOTS 



THE matter of "lifting" indentations has been 
touched upon lightly in a previous chapter, but 
another method will be given here and more in 
detail. 

There is a general impression that a decided dent 
in a piece of wood or in a piece of finished furniture 
cannot be corrected. Such is not the truth. Whether 
the dent be in a solid top or in a piece of veneer need 
makes no difference, it can be effectively removed. In- 
deed, such dents can be repaired so that even the expert 
eye cannot detect the location of the dent. 

The tools for this work are a knife, spirit lamp, 
sticks of various shades of wood cement and a stick 



SERIOUS 
DENTS CAN 
BE RAISED 




IMPLEMENTS FOR REPAIRING DENTS AND BRUISES 



of gum shellac, shown in the cut herewith. The knife 
is a thick-bladed shoe knife. The lamp can be bought 
at any hardware store, but one can be made by cutting 
off half the length of a machine oil can stem, using the 



574 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



WOOD CAN BE 
REPLACED 
SUCCESSFULLY 
WITH CEMENT 



VENEER 

BLISTERS 

REMOVED 



cap of a cartridge to cover the end of the w^ick when 
not in use. Thus is the evaporation of the alcohol pre- 
vented. The cement and the shellac can be purchased 
readily. 

If the dent is in the white wood, wet the dent with 
water, heat the knife blade, and apply the knife to the 
dent until the water there evaporates into steam. Re- 
peat until the fibers of the dent are raised up level with 
or above the surface. After drying for an hour or two, 
sandpaper and finish as usual. This process can be 
followed with all woods where the surface is dented or 
bruised. 

Where a small piece of wood is gone, a knot or bad 
defect in the wood, this is the method : Stain the defect 
and all around it in a radius of an inch- or more with 
the same stain that the work is to be finished with. 
When dry, light the spirit lamp, select cement of the 
right color or shade, and drop hot particles into the 
defect. Heat the knife and press down the cement 
into all the parts. Cut down the cement with a sharp 
knife or chisel, and sandpaper smooth. The defect 
must be stained before the cement is put in, as the 
stain will not hold over the cement, for the cement in 
the pore of the white wood will show light under the 
stain. 

Veneer blisters can be laid down with the same 
knife and spirit lamp. After staining veneer work 
press down the blister with the heated knife, rubbing 
it close. The work will thus prove better than though 
the cabinetmaker undertook to raise the blister. Put 
glue under it, and clamp it down for an hour or two. 
The hot knife shrinks the blister and warms up the 
glue underneath, so that a repair is made that cannot 
be detected ; the surface has not been broken, as it 
would have been had the cabinetmaker cut it open and 
applied new glue to it. 



CHAPTER XCIV 

HELP OFFERED IN FIXING FORMULAS 

THE publishers have arranged to supply purchasers 
of this book with small samples of the anilines 
employed in the production of the formulas given 
here. anilines 

Recognizing the great importance of procuring furnished by 
identical shades and the identical strength of colors in publishers 
working out formulas, and knowing that there is a 
possibility of a variance when goods of different manu- 
facture are employed, it was thought that by rendering 
this service it would enable every one to first establish 
the correctness of shade and strength of material be- 
fore attempting to produce results. 

The following simple method of procedure will be 
found most satisfactory: 

From the sample take five grains, carefully 
weighed ; then take five grains from the regular stock. 
Dissolve sample in 10 ounces of water, and the five 
grains from stock dissolve in five ounces of water. The 
supposition is that the stock is of the same strength, 
but that possibly it is not. Place each solution in a 
bottle of same diameter. If the shade of the stock 
solution is darker, add water until it is an exact match. 
Suppose, for example, it requires but eight ounces, then 
it is stronger than the sample and the same percentage method of 
should be figured in making the stain. Eight ounces "fixing" a 
equaling 10 ounces of the sample indicates that only formula 
four-fifths of 80 per cent of the amount given in the 
formula is to be used. If, on the other hand, the same 
amount of water were used and the shade is darker, 
then continue the addition of water until match is com- 
plete, either keeping exact count of each quantity of 
water so added or by measuring entire amount after 
the match has been attained. 

Suppose, then, that we added two ounces more, 
having a duplicate of shade in 15 ounces of water, 
whereas the original sample was dissolved in 10. It 



576 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



means that the stain you have is stronger and you^ 
problem is this: In the original you have five grains 
in 10 ounces of water, or reduced would make it one 
grain in every two ounces of water. Your stock, how- 
ever, shows that the same color is produced by using 
15 ounces of the water to the five grains, or one grain 
to every three ounces of water. From which it will 
be seen at a glance that your stock is one-third stronger 
than is necessary to attain the color actually sought. 
HOW TO BE To be absolutely certain of your results procure 

CERTAIN OF white blotting paper, cut it into long, narrow strips 
RESULTS and immerse pieces in the two solutions. Let them dry 

in the air ; do not force the drying, also do not remove 
from the light; normal result is what you are after. 
If when thus dried the match is satisfactory, you are 
safe to go ahead. You may find a color that will regis- 
ter darker in solution, but when it has dried down in 
this manner it will not show this way, and as your 
work will require the shade when dried, this manner 
of testing is reliable. When a color shows this pecu- 
liarity it is recommended to make the same test on 
wood. 

If you wish a sample aniline to produce any shade 
or finish mentioned in this book, send 10 cents in silver 
or stamps, for postage and packing, to the publish- 
ers, and it will be sent you gratis. 



CHAPTER XCV 

THE BY-PRODUCTS OF COAL 

THE accompanying diagram should be of great in- 
terest to the finisher, inasmuch as it shows graph- 
ically the steps in obtaining aniline dyes from 
coal, or coal tar. 

Most of the colors that the finisher employs for his 
art at the present are those obtained from coal, and as 
he is using these stains nearly every day in the year, 
we believe he would find it interesting to trace for a 
moment the steps by which his colors, and other multi- 
tudinous products are obtained. 

We are indebted to Mr. James E. Spindle, an expert 
in the recovery and manufacture of coal tar products, 
for much of the following information, and the dia- 
gram. 

Starting with the raw product, coal, at the bottom 
of the plan, the first step is to heat or distill the coal 
in a closed air-tight retort, so that at the end of the 
operation, two products remain, coke, in the retort, and 
raw gas in the receiving chamber. The latter, by 
means of suitable purifying apparatus, is washed and 
scrubbed ; this removes the raw tar, ammoniacal liquor, 
sulphur and cyanogen. 

The effluent used in washing the gas is put through 
a separator, where, because of the difference in density, 
the ammonia liquor and tar are mechanically separated. 
The ammonia thus obtained is concentrated, and then 
forms the basis for a number of products, such as am- 
monia salts, etc. 

The distillates of coal tar are naphtha, benzine, 
naphthaline and a number of other products. Benzine 
and benzole are used in the manufacture of aniline 
dyes. 

Branching out from the refined tar are three oils, 
known as light, medium and heavy oils. Following 
the light oil, we come to a number of products, then to 
aniline salt, and tracing along to mauve. This product 



578 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



is interesting, because it was the first of the aniline 
dyes and was discovered by Perkins in 1865. It is from 
these isolated components of coal tar that we now pro- 
duce the many coloring matters which are used as 
dyes. 

Look the chart over carefully, note how many times 
the word "dye" occurs, along with eosine, chinolin, 



«:/c phc/iml Br»iac ^"W^ff 






' \mSic6 \ ore 

\ B£/yzrL \ / 

' ALCOHOL Jt^, / „ , 



vtNC , 

BCN20L 




THE BY-PRODUCTS OF COAL 579 

indigo, etc. At first hand, it seems a long way from 
the black lumps of coal in the engine room to the 
stains for your finishing, hue by following along the 
lines you can readily see how closely related they really 
are, and what vast resources are hidden in the coal. 
Remember, this chart is brief ; were it fully carried out, 
the products obtained would doubtless run into many 
thousands. Those of the various colors made alone 
would total into the thousands. Then think of the 
photographic developers, the medicines, oils, perfumes, 
extracts, etc. Aye, verily, a coal mine is a gold mine. 



GENERAL INDEX 



Acetic Acid — 

Use to help set color 172 

Acid Stains — 
Composition of, and effect. ...62-64 

Acids — 

Used in fuming 161-164 

See also Acetic Acid; Acid 
Stains; Carbolic Acid; 
Chemicals; Chromic Acid; 
Cresylic Acid; Gallic 
Acid; Oxalic Acid; Phe- 
nol; Pyrogallic Acid; Tan- 
nic Acid. 
Adulteration — 

Fish oil, adulterant 277,325 

Linseed oil 324-325 

Turpentine, governmental 

regulation 373-375 

Aeron Air Brush Equip- 
ment 332-334 

Air Brush Equipment — 

Advantages 329-334 

Alcohol Lamp — 

Making 110 

Alcohol Stain — 

Application of 92 

Keep from light 92 

Sanding not required 92 

Alkalies — 

Do not combine with anilines 219 
Alkaline Stains — 

Applied w^ith sponge 79, 80-81 

Composed of, and effect 63-64 

Protection of hands from. ...80-81 
Ammonia — 

Anhydrous, use of, in fum- 
ing 148-150 

Methods of liberating in 

fuming 133, 135, 137, 

140, 142-143, 145-146, 147-150 

Use' of, in stains 63 

Anhydrous Ammonia 148-150 

Aniline Dyes — 

Acid colors recommended 168 

Alkalies do not combine with 219 

Antagonism of some 73-74 

Color, permanent and uni- 
form 73,177 



Combine with certain chem- 
icals 219 

Furnish 95 per cent of water 
stains 177 

Groups of 178 

Samples furnished for fix- 
ing formulas 575-576 

Use recommended 167 

Value of, in staining 34, 36 

Anthracene — 

Use, in finishing room 229 

Antwerp Oak — 

Formula 411 

Antwerp Oil Stain — 

Formula 410 

ASPHALTUM — 

Reduction of, for blending 
stain 212 

AsPHALTUM Varnish — 

For metallic surfaces 394 

For smoke stacks 393 

In dipping process 113-114 

Astringent — 

Gallic or tannic acid 162-163 

Atmospheric Conditions — 

Factor in drying 271-272 

Austrian Oak Finish — 

Formula 409 

Banana Oil — 

Produces dull finish 267 

Baronial Oak Finish — 

Formulas 410 

Bars — 

Polish formula for 511 

Bassett Method of Resilver- 

ing Mirrors 525-530 

Belgian Oak Finish — 

Formula 413 

Belt Glue — 

Formula 497 

Bent Wood — 

Difficulty in filling 123 

Benzol — 

Crude, refining 229-230 

Refined — 

Properties of 231-232 



582 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



Uses of 233-235 

Thinning agent for bronzing 
liquids 233 

Bichromate of Potash — 
Use to help set color recom- 
mended 172 

Birch — 

Cherry stain on 192 

Formula 414 

Curly, surfacer for 256 

Finishes for 189-192 

Fuming process possible 

with 192 

Mahogany stains for.. .30, 57, 173, 
191,450,453,454 

Matching, difficulties in 189 

Qualities for furniture 

189, 191, 192 
Toona on, formula 454 

Bird's-Eye Maple — 

Finishes 208-210 

Surfacer for 256 

BiSMARK Brown — 

Use in producing spirit ma- 
hogany 170-171 

Black Nigrosine — 
Key color 85 

Black Stains — 
Formulas 426, 427 

Bleaching — 

Hydro-sulphite 216 

Shellac 296, 297 

Stains on wood 516, 517 

Walnut 193-195 

Willow 197 

Wood, before staining 215-216 

Blending — 

Brush for 212 

Fuming by staining process.. 155 

Processes 211-214 

Blisters — 

In veneer work, cause and 

remedy 105-107, 574 

Bog Oak Finish — 

Formula 413 

Bowser System of Storage 

Tanks 383-387 

Brass — 

Shellac varnish for 541 

Bronzing Liquids — 

Benzol as thinning agent 233 



Brown — 

Potassium of permanganate 

formula 203 

Predominating as finishing 

color 81 

Tartnin and potash formula.. 201 

Brushes — 

Care of, in varnishing.. ..261, 391 

Cleaning 390, 552 

For blending 212 

For staining 58, 79-80 

Preservatives 80 

Burnish Powders 369-371 

Burnishing — 
Methods 369-371 

Butler Oak Finish — 

Formula 413 

Cabinet Work — 
STiould be well done to insure 

good finish 108 

Staining must correct faults 
of 87,90 

Cage — 

Wire, for dipping small 

pieces 116 

Cane — 

Coloring 198-139 

Canvas Fuming Box 146-143 

Carbolic Acid — 

Crude, solvent for oil stain.... 182 

Use in finishing room 229 

Carvings — • 

Staining 57 

See also End wood. 
Case Goods — 

Staining inside 57, 223-224 

Caster Wheels — 

Polishing by tumbling 505 

Cathedral Oak Finish — 

Formula 414 

Cedar Chest — 

Filler 123 

Celluloid — 

Cements, formulas.. ..501-502, 538 

Coloring 538 

Glue for 493 

Cement — 
Celluloid, formulas. .501-502, 538 
For filling holes, formulas.. 

557-558 



GENERAL INDEX 



583 



Glass and metals 498-499 

Holes in crotch veneer filled 

with 109-110 

Wood can be replaced with.. 574 

Chairs — 

Birch, good wood for 189 

Checking — 

Surface 310 

Chemical Stains — 

Application of each coat 

separately 74-75 

Depend on chemical action 

on wood to produce color.. 177 
For coloring willow and reed 197 

Penetrating power of 85 

Trend is toward 81-82 

Chemicals — 

Atmospheric effect on 251 

Combinations with vegetable 

extracts, Table of 220-222 

Keeping 241 

From air 76 

To be avoided 168 

Cherry Stain — 

Formulas 414, 417 

On birch 192 

On maple 209 

Chinese Teak — 

Formula 417 

Chippendale Acid Stain Fin- 
ish — 
Formula 417 

Chlorinated Soda — 

Bleach 194, 215 

Chromic Acid — 

Use not recommended 172 

Cleanliness — 

See Brushes; Color Materi- 
als; Containers; Staining; 
Varnish. 

Coal Tar Dyes — 

Characteristics and uses..229-235 

Quantities safe to use 35 

Value of, in staining 34, 35 

Coal, By-Products of 577-579 

Color Materials — 

Addition of, to filler.. 118, 120, 128 
Amount to be used depends 

on wood and color shade.. 172 
Antagonism of some dyes 

and chemicals 73-75 

Cleanliness necessary in dis- 



solving 68, 75 

Heat hastens solubility 75 

Keep dry 77-78 

Percentage of solubility.. ..170-171 

Increased by heat 76-77 

Recommended 167, 168 

Reduction of color value in.. 

167-168, 171 
Solubility must be known. ...93-96 
Soluable in water not fast to 

light 35 

Solution by water bath meth- 
od 26 

Varying aflfinities for woods.. 

111-112 
Which will produce any 

shade on market 226-227 

See also Aniline Dyes; Bis- 
mark Brown; Black Ni- 
grosine; Coal Tar Dyes; 
Colors; Gold Leaf; Gold 
Paint; Mineral Dyes; Per- 
manganate; Pigments; 
Red Lead; Vegetable Col- 
ors. 

Colorimeter 399-401 

Colors — 

Brown stains dominating. .. 81 
Combinations to produce 

tints in fillers 123-124 

Pigment, mixtures 355-368 

Mixtures 355-368 

Result of chemical changes.. 164 
Uniformity of shade, method 

of producing.. .168-170, 177-179 
Water stains have highest 

color value 226 

See also Black Stains; 
Brown; Color Materials; 
Formulas; Fuming; Gray; 
Green; Matchings; Poly- 
chroming; Stains. 

Containers — 

Cleaning 68, 75, 552 

Cost Keeping 381-382 

Cotton Waste — 

For polishing 265-266 

Counters — 

Polish for 511 

Creosote Oil — 

Impurities in 182-186 

Cresylic Acid — 

Use, in finishing room 229 



584 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



Crotch Veneer — See Veneer. 
Crystallization — 

Effect on stain 77,94 

Curly Birch — See Birch. 
Cylinder Sandpaper 51 

Dangers^- 

Dipping process, with oil 

stains 115-116 

Naphtha, use of 18 

S"torage of materials 383-387 

Dents — 

Raising 573-574 

Dextrin — 

Filler in stain powders 171 

Dipping — 

Advantages Ill, 114 

Color uniformity, maintain- 
ing 111-115 

Dangers 115-116 

Difficulty of sap streaks in.... 90 

Ebonizing solution 217 

For finishing processes... .267-269 
Fuming by staining process.. 

155-156 

Methods 111-116 

Stains 112-113, 115-116 

Dipping Room — 

Location and ventilation 19 

Drawers — 

Staining 223-224 

Driftwood — 

Formulas 418, 421 

Drying — 

Atmospheric conditions im- 
portant factor 272-273 

Chemical stains 73 

Effect of light on 22-23 

Filler 122,253 

Systems 273-274 

Varnish 253-254, 259-260, 262-288 
Veneers 99-100 

Dusting — 

Necessary before application 
of stain 92, 259 

Dutch Brown Oak "Finish — 
Formula 418 

Dyes — See Color Materials. 

Early English Finish — 

Antique, formula 429 

Formulas '. 421-425 



Ebonizing — 

Stain Formula 426 

Tables 544 

Electric Exhaust Fan 333 

Electric Heater 333 

Enamel — 

Removing, formulas 548, 551 

Benzol in 235 

Enameling — 

Process 237-238 

End Wood — 

Staining 43-44 

English Oak Finish — 

Formulas 425, 446, 462 

Processes 187-188 

Equipment — 

Air brush 239-334 

Finishing room 25-29 

Raising dents 573 

Silvering mirrors 525 

See also Brushes; Contain- 
ers; Fuming Box; Grad- 
uates; Hydrometer; Mor- 
tar and Pestle; Scales. 
European Processes — 

Smoothing with p u m i c e 

stone 47-48 

See also French; German. 
Experiments — 

Card record for 30-32 

Matching samples 247-252 

See also Tests. 

Felt Filter 77 

Felt Pad — 

For polishing 264, 395-396 

Filler — 

Application of 

.....119, 121-122, 129, 130 

Apply thin on close grain 

woods 174 

Bent wood difficulties 123 

Cements for holes 425-426 

Cleaning off 127, 129 

Clearness in, essential 173-174 

Color combinations for. ...123-124 
Color material, addition of.. 

118-120,128 

Cracks and holes, formulas.. 

557-561 

Drying 122, 253 

For crotch veneer 89 

For Italian walnut 319 



GENERAL INDEX 



585 



For mahogany 130-131 

For oak 119, 120, 122 

Formula 571 

For rosewood 130 

Importance of 117, 118 

Ingredients 125-127 

Japan, brown, as drier 126 

Kinds and qualifications.. 117-118 

Lacquer 239 

Linseed oil as binder 126 

Mahogany, do not put black 

in 174 

Matching 174, 248 

Novelty finishes for oak 207 

Oil, not good for lacquer fin- 
ishes 239 

Omit on birch in mahogany 

finish 173,175 

Open grain woods 390 

Preparation and application, 

117-124,125-131 

Putties 557-561 

Rub across grain 119,122,129 

Silex in 119, 120, 125 

Silica pigment 125 

Time limit in which filler is 

at its best 126 

Vegetable, disadvantages of, 117 
White, formula 127 



FlLTER- 

Felt 



77 



Finishing — 

Back of furniture 224 

Changing finishes 227-228, 551 

Cost keeping 381-382 

Dipping process 267-269 

Direct sunlight to be avoided 

in 23 

Drawers 223-224 

Good work in early stages 

counts in 253, 255 

Lacquer 239-240 

Materials, storage of 283-287 

Preparation of woods for.. ..41-45 
Rapid processes of the future 

18,254 

Unevenness in, cause 39-40 

See also Bleaching; Blend- 
ing; Dipping; Drying; 
Ebonizing; Enameling; 
Filler; Finishing Room; 
P'ormulas Fuming; 
Graining; Lacquers; Let- 
tering; Matchings; Nov- 
elty Finishes, Polishing; 



Rubbing; Sanding; Spong- 
ing; Staining; Surfacing; 
Tumbling; Varnish; Ve- 
neer. 
Finishing Room — 

Equipment 25-29 

Heating 19-20, 274 

Hot water facilities in 23-24 

Lighting 21-23 

Location 17 

Planning 17-24 

Problems of 378-380 

System 25-32 

Ventilation ....! 17-19 

Whitewash not desirable 21-22 

See also Dipping Room; 
Fuming Box. 
Fish Oil — 

Adulterant 277, 325 

Fitch — 

For applying turpentine 

stains 58 

Flanders Stain — 

Formula 430 

Flash — 

Test of varnish 285 

Floors — 

Finishing 315 

Formulas — 

Accuracy important 403-404 

Acid proof finish for table 

tops 543-544 

Antwerp oak 411 

Antwerp oil stain 410 

Birch — 

Fumed oak color for 190 

Stained mahogany 

30, 173, 450, 453, 454 

Black stains 426, 429 

Bleaching stains on wood 516 

Blending mixture for fumed 

oak 213 

Blending stain for golden 

oak 211 

Browns from tannin and 

potash 201 

Card record for 30-32 

Celluloid- 
Cements 501-502, 538 

Coloring 538 

Cement — 

Celluloid 501-502, 538 

For filling holes 55'}-558 

For glass and metals. ...498-501 



586 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



Cherry stain — 

On birch 414 

On pine 417 

Chinese teak 417 

Chippendale acid stain 417 

Chlorinated soda bleach. .194, 215 

Cleaner for furniture 508 

Doctoring: 184-185 

Driftwood 418, 421 

Early English 421-425 

Antique 429 

Ebonizing solution 217 

Ebony stain 426 

Enamel, I'emovi/ig 548, 551 

Filler, white 127 

Finish for inside case work.. 

223-224 

Flanders 430 

Forest green 430 

Frosted glass 515 

"Fumed birch" 190 

Fumed oak 430-442 

Limbert's No. 8 449 

Oil stains 434-437 

Fuming, stain for 156-157 

General principles 167-172 

Glue- 
Belt 497 

For celluloid 493 

For leather on card board.. 497 

For paper and metal 494 

For wood, glass, metals, 

etc 497 

Liquid 489-493 

Marine 497-498 

Uniting metals with fabrics 

497 

Water-proof 493-494 

Gold paint 389 

Graining to match woods 

521-522 

Jacobean 476 

Kaiser gray 446 

Kenilworth 449 

Leathei' — 

Rejuvenating 568 

Renewing color 563-564 

Lettering on glass 537 

Mahogany 475 

Mahogany stain 450-454 

Antique 409 

G. R. M. standard 445 

Old, restoring color 515 

On birch 30, 173, 450, 453 

Prima vera 457 

Sheraton 461 



Maple — 

Gray 445 

Matching samples 249-250, 252 

Novelty finishes for oak....206-207 

Oak- 
Austrian 409 

• Baronial 410 

Belgian 413 

Bog 413 

Butler 413 

Cathedral 414 

Dutch brown 418 

English 425 

Filler 571 

Fumed 430-442 

Fumed — 

Limbert's No. 8 449 

Oil stains 434-437 

Golden — 

Matching 252 

Oil soluble stain 188,457 

Water soluble stain 466 

Jacobean 446 

Malachite 454 

Novelty finishes for 206-207 

Old, oil stain 31 

Oriental 454 

Silver finish 461 

Stratford 462 

Weathered 466-473 

Oxalic acid bleach 215 

Paint — 

For coating mirrors 530 

Removing 547-555 

Paper, sticking to tin 515 

Piano finish polish 511 

Pitting of piano varnish, 

remedy for 519 

Polish 265, 507-511 

French, for hand polish- 
ing 398,307-308 

Potassium permanganate for 

producing brown 203 

Putties for holes and cracks 

557-561 

Red lead paint .- 394 

Rosewood stain 458 

S'ample stain, for keeping in 

stock 243 

Samples furnished by pub- 
lishers 409, 575-576 

Shellac 458 

Substitute 458 

Varnish for brass 541 



GENERAL INDEX 



587 



Silvering mirrors 

526-529,533-534 

Stain powder, amount of 
used 172 

Standard brown mahogany.. 476 

Standard finishes, new 475 

Standard fumed oak, stain 
method 476 

Stopping for cabinet mak- 
ers 557-558 

Surfacer for dipping pro- 
cess 268 

Tin solder, removing 548 

Tobacco brown 462 

Toona 454 

Uniform color shades, pro- 
ducing 168-170, 177-179 

Uniform standard, maintain- 
ing 167 

Van Dyke brown, on gum.... 462 

Varnish — 

Reducer 259 

Removing 276-277, 547-555 

Surfacer 255-256 

Verda green 465 

Walnut- 
Alpine 195 

Antique 317 

Finishes 465-466, 475 

Italian 319 

Water marks on varnish, re-> 
moving 549 

Wax- 
Furniture City 445 

Palmetto 457 

Finish protector 516 

fourdrinier sandpaper 51 

French — 

Polishing methods. .398, 307-308 

Use of American bird's-eye 

maple 208 

Fumed Oak — 

See Oak. 

FUMEXER 

In air brush equipment 333 

FUMINE 138 

Fuming — 

Acids used in 161-164 

Ammonia process 

133-150, 151-154 

Birch 192 

Brush, process for 381-382 

Colors — 

Controlled by length of 
process 151 



Strengthened by use of 
oil 151 

Compounds which facilitate 

process 152 

Dipping small pieces 155-156 

English oak finishes 187-188 

Flake difficulties in staining 

process 158-159 

Glue joints parting, remedy.. 165 
How to shorten time of pro- 
cess 152-153 

Now becoming general 82 

Oak formulas 430-442, 449 

Real versus imitation 150 

Soil has influence on 151 

Staining process 155-160 

Tanned bark extract varies 

color 142 

Tannic acid facilities 152-153 

Uniformity in result obtained 

151,153 

Fuming Box — 

Apparatus for fuming 

.133-138, 140, 145-146, 147-150 

Canvas 146-148 

Construction 133-150 

Location 133, 143 

Size 133, 142, 143 

Temperature 138 

Test box, construction 139, 141 

Union Furniture Co.'s box, 

Rockford, 111 143-146 

Ventilation 143, 148 

Fusel Oil — 

Used in air brush coating.... 331 

Gallic Acid — 

Nature of 162 

Garnet Paper 52 

Gas Oil — 

Impurities in 182, 185-186 

Gases — 

Accumulation in finishing 
and dipping rooms 17-19 

German — 

Method of polishing 507 

Text book, quoted 48 

Glass — 

Cement for, formulas 498-501 

Drilling holes in 538 

Frosted, formulas for 515 

Glue for, formula 497 

Lettering or ornamentation.. 

537-538 

See also Mirrors. 



588 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



Glue — 

Belt, formula 497 

For Celluloid, formula 493 

For leather on cardboard, 

formula 497 

For paper and metal, for- 
mula 494 

For sandpaper 51 

For wood, glass, metals, etc., 

formulas 497 

Liquid, formulas 489-493 

Marine, formula 497-498 

Size, use of in veneer 103-104 

Uriting metals with fabrics, 

formula 497 

Used on sap streaks 88 

Waterproof, formulas 493-494 

Gold Leaf — 
Applying 389 

Gold Paint — 

Formula _. 389 

Golden Oak — See Oak. 

Government Regulation — 

Sale of turpentine 373-375 

Graduates 26-27 

Graining — 

Formulas for various colors 

521-522 

Plain wood 56 

Grand Rapids Manufactur- 
ers' Formulas — 

Fumed oak 438 

Mahogany 445 

Weathered oak 469 

Gray — 

Maple, formula 445 

Novelty finishes in 205-210 

Green — 

Forest green, formula 430 

Verda, formula 465 

Gum — 

In varnish 275 

Gum Wood — 

Finishes for 245-246 

Finishing to match mahog- 
any 174,175 

Van Dyke brown on, for- 
mula 462 

Gun Metal Finish 207 

Hand Polishing 263.266 



Hands — 

Protection of, from stains.. 80-81 
Heat — 

Aids penetration of stain. ...79, 85 

Discolors silvering 533 

Hastens solubility of color 

materials 75 

Increases percentage of sol- 
ubility 76-77 

Heat Stain — 

Removing 391 

Heating — 

Electric heater 333 

Finishing room 19-20, 274 

With air brush equipment.... 

331-333 

See also Temperature. 

Hot Water — 

Colors dissolved in 75-76 

Facilities in finishing room. .23-24 
Hotel Furniture — 

Birch, good wood for 192 

Humidity — 

Effect on varnish 272-273 

Hydrometer 183 

Ink Stain — 

Removing from wood 519 

Inlays — 

Finishes for 479-487 

Imitating 203 

Iron — 

Precautions in use of 208 

Used in fuming by staining 

process 158-160 

Iron Spots — 

In wood, removing 216 

Jacobean Finish — 

Formulas 446, 476 

Process 187 

Japan — 

Benzol in 235 

Brown, as drier for filler.. 126 
Joining Room — 

Lax methods in, effect finish 

378-379 

Joints — 

Glued, parting in fuming, 
remedy 165 

Kaiser Gray 205, 210 

Formula 446 



GENERAL INDEX 



589 



Kauri Gum — 

Used in varnish 275 

Kenilworth Finish — 

Formula 449 

Process 187-188 

Knots — 

In wood, covering 310 

In wood, filling with shellac. 294 
In wood, staining 88-89 

Lacquer — 

Chinese and Japanese 

337,343-345 

Enamels 239-240 

Faults on metal work 339 

Gloss 338 

Metal 240 

Metal, not used on wood 337 

Nitrated cotton base 338 

Rubbing of 341 

Solvents 338 

Spraying 340 

Thinner 340 

Turning white 339 

Used on gum wood 245 

With polychrome finishes.... 

353-354 

Wood, modern 337-342 

Work must be clean 339 

Zaponite, applying 342 

See also Shellac; Varnish. 

Lapping 390 

Laurie, Dr. A. P. — 

Instrument for testing hard- 
ness of varnish 280 

Laws — 

Michigan act regulating sale 

of turpentine 373-375 

Lead — 

Red 394 

Leather — • 

Glue for sticking on card- 
board, formula 497 

Renovating or recoloring.. 563-568 
Lettering — 

Glass 537-538 

Lighting — 

Finishing room 21-23 

Linseed Oil — 

Adulteration 324-325 

Binder in filler 126 

Darkens wood 325-327 

Produces richness in fum- 
ing 151 



Refining 324 

Source of 323-324 

Tests 324-325 

Used in varnish. 275 

Liquid Filler 118 

Liquid Glues — 

Formulas 489-493 

Liquids — 

Care of 243 

Lye — 

Does not help set color 172 

Mahogany — 

Antique, formula 409 

Birch stained to match, for- 
mulas and methods 

30, 57, 173, 450-453 

Blending, not much needed 

on 214 

Carvings on, staining 57 

Changing finish 228 

Color shades, matching.. ..169-170 

Cracks, filling 561 

Defects in, correcting 107-108 

Filler for 125, 130-131 

Formulas for stains 

450-454,475-476 

G. R. M. standard formula.... 445 

Graining plain wood 56 

Imitation, formulas and 

methods 173-175 

Maple stained as 209 

Surfacer for 256-257 

Potash in stain, questionable 219 

Prima verda, formula 457 

Restoring color to old, for- 
mula 515 

Sheraton, formula 461 

Specks in finish, removing.... 516 
Spirit, producing with Bis- 

mark brown 170-171 

Standard American, for- 
mula 475 

Standard brown, formula 476 

Stain formula on market.. 171-172 
Stains, formulas..450-454, 475-476 

Surfacer for 257-258 

Veneer, preparation for 

staining 103-108 

Malachite Oak Finish — 

Formula 454 

Maple — 

Gray, formulas 445 

Novelty finishes 208-210 



590 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



Surfacer, when staining ma- 
hogany 256-257 

Marine Glue — 
Formula 497-498 

Hatchings — 

Colorimeter for 399-401 

Formula for graining to 

match woods 521-522 

Mahogany 57 

Procedure for 247-252 

Shellac, test 571 

System of records 25, 30-32 

Testing 170 

Mercury — 

Not used for mirrors 530 

Metals — 

Glue for, formulas 494-497 

See also Brass; Tin. 
Metric System — 

Recommended ....403-405, 407-408 
Michigan Laws — 

Act regulating sale of tur- 
pentine 373-375 

Mineral Dyes — 

Permanency of 33 

Mineral Turpentine — 

Use in filler 120 

Mirrors — 

Cleaning 538 

Resilvering 525-534 

Mission Finish — 

Filler for 121 

Moisture — 

EflFect on color materials. ...77-78 

Effect on sandpaper 53 

Mortar and Pestle 28-29 

Naphtha — 

Brings out difference of 

shade 153, 155 

Danger in use of 18 

Heavy, properties of 230, 232 

Solvent, properties and uses 

231,232 

Naphthalene — 

Use, in finishing room 229 

In oil solvents, injurious to 
stain 182-186 

Novelty Finishes 205-210 

Oak— 

Austrian finish, formula 409 



Baronial finish, formulas 410 

Belgian finish, formula 413 

Bog finish, formula 413 

Butler finish, formula 413 

Cathedral finish, formulas.... 414 
Dutch brown finish, formula 418 

English finish, formula 425 

Filler for 119, 120, 122 

Formula 571 

Formulas for novelty fin- 
ishes 206-207 

Fumed — 

Ammonia process 

133-150,151-154 

Blending mixture for 213 

Formulas 430-442, 449 

Staining process 155-160 

Golden- 
Blending processes 211 

Changing finish to fumed 

oak 228 

Filling 122 

Matching 252 

Oil soluble stain, formula 

188,457 

Water soluble stain, for- 
mula 466 

Italian Rennaisance, formula 

321-322 

Jacobean finish, formula. .466, 476 

Malachite finish, formula 454 

Novelty finishes 205-208, 210 

Old, oil stain, formula 31 

Oriental finish, formula 454 

Printing figures on imita- 
tion 257 

Silver finish, formula 461 

S'tain oozing, remedy 58-59 

Standard fumed finish, for- 
mula 476 

Stratford, formula 462 

Tannic acid in, important 

color factor 177-178 

Uniformity of color shade, 

producing 168-169 

Varnish, surfacer for 255 

Weathered, formulas 466-473 

Oil Stains — 

Antwerp, formula 410 

Applying * 58 

Benzol in 234 

Early English, formula. ...421-425 

Fumed oak, formulas 434-437 

Golden oak, formulas 188, 457 

In dipping process.. ..113, 115-116 



GENERAL INDEX 



591 



Jacobean finish 187,476 

Nature of, is a suspension.... 96 

Old oak finish, formula 31 

On imitation mahogany 175 

Quicker than water stain.... 175 

Sanding not required on 92 

Solvents for, impurities in.. 

182-186 

Treatment of sap streaks 

with 88 

Use of, in cold weather.. ..181-186 

Value of 62,64-65,69,226 

Oils — 

Depth of color produced by.. 85-86 
Distribution of, in factory.... 387 
Do not use between coats on 

imitation mahogany 174 

Established uniform stand- 
ard for 183-184 

Impurities in, injurious in 

stain 182-186 

Storage of, in factories.. ..383-387 

Used in varnish 275-277 

See also Banana Oil; Creo- 
sote Oil; Fish Oil; Fusel 
Oil; Gas Oil; Linseed Oil; 
Naphtha; Oil Stains; 
Pitches; Tar Oil; Toluol; 
Turpentine. 
Oriental Oak Finish — 

Formula 454 

Oxalic Acid — 

As bleach 195,215 



Paasche Air Brush Method 
OF Finishing 329-332 

Paint — 

Aluminum 399 

Coating silvered mirror 530 

Not used in true staining.. ..83-84 

Removing, formulas 547-555 

Smoke stack 393 

See also Enamel; Pigments. 

Palmetto Wax — 

Formula 457 

Paper — 

Sticking to tin, formula 515 

Paraffine Wax — 

Applying 391 

For tumbling 505 

Parchment — 

Finish 238 

Paste Filler 117 

Reducing to a liquid 128 



Permanganate — 

Formula for producing 
browns 203 

Peroxide of Hydrogen — 

Bleach 195 

Petrolatum — 

Vaseline substitute 81 

Pews — 

Sticky, remedy 519 

Phenol — 

Use, in finishing room 229 

Pianos — 

Hand polishing on 263 

Keys, polishing 217 

Pitting of varnish, remedy.... 519 

Polish, formula 511 

Preserving polish 511-512 

Temperature for show rooms 511 

Picture Frames — 

How to burnish 370-371 

Pigments — •. 

In filler 125 

Mixture of color 355-368 

Permanent 365 

Should not be used in stains 170 
See also Color Materials; 
Silex; Silica. 

Pine — 

Cherry stain on, formula 417 

Pitches — 

Use of 229 

Polishing — 

Enamel 237 

Formulas 398, 507-511 

French method 398, 307-308 

German method 507 

Methods 263, 265-266, 395-397 

Secret of, is good founda- 
tion 511 

Tumbling process 505 

See also Rubbing. 

Polychrome — 

Finishes 347-354 

Method No. 1 350 

Method No. 2 351 

Method No. 3 352 

Pigment colors used in. ...355-368 

Potash — 

In mahogany stain, ques- 
tionable 219 

Powders — 

Burnish 369-371 



592 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



Prima Vera Mahogany Fin- 
ish Formula 457 

Printing — 

' Oak figure for imitation oak.. 257 
Varnish difficulty 253 

Pumice Stone — 

Process of smoothing with. .47-48 
Used in rubbing 263-264 

Pump — 

For fuming box 145, 146 

Putties — 

For wood 557-561 

Pyrogallic Acid — 

Nature of 163 

Radiators — 

In finishing room 20 

Records — 

Matchings 25, 30-32 

Coloring 197-198 

Rockford, III. — 

Union Furniture Co.'s fum- 
ing box 143-146 

Rosewood — 

Filling 130 

Stain, formula 458 

Rosin — 

Add to oil stain 181 

In lacquer 341-342 

Rotten Stone — 

Use in polishing 263 

Royal Early English Finish — 
Formula 429 

Rubbing — 

Machine 397-398 

Methods ...395-397 

Pumice stone used in 

47-48,263-264 

See also Polishing. 

Russian Brown Finish 210 

Samples — 

Colors furnished by publish- 
ers 409, 575-576 

Sanding — 

Block for 47,259 

Cedar chest 123 

Danger of "cutting through" 45 

Effect of depth of color 103 

Essentials 33 

European process 47-48 



Good finish depends on 47 

Linseed oil finish 326 

Preliminary to finishing 42-45 

Shellac 258-259 

Should be done with the grain 47 

Uniformity essential 50 

Varnish 50-51 

Veneers 103-104 

Water stains 91 

Sandpaper — 

For shellac 258 

Garnet 52 

Moisture, effect of, on 49, 53 

Process of making 51-52 

Testing 53 

Varieties 48-49, 51, 52 

Sanitary Wood Work — 
Finishing 268-269 

S'ap Streaks — 

Methods of overcoming 87-88 

Scales — 

Balance of scales 26,28,32 

Scratches — 

In varnish, obliterating 277 

Sea Moss — 

For cleaning off filler 129 

Seasoning Wood — 

Old and new methods 41 

S'hellac — 

Advantages as a finish. ...309-310 

As filler 117,130 

As surfacer 254,255,256,258 

Bleached, surfacer for ma- 
hogany 257-258 

Bleaching process 296 

"Blooming" 312-313 

Brush to use 312 

Classification 259-297 

Climatic effect on 313,314 

Filler for cedar chest 123 

Finishing with 307-316 

Formulas 458 

Grades 295-297 

History of 291-306 

How gum is obtained 297-301 

Making of 291-306 

Matching, test 571 

Moisture in 306 

Purchasing 292 

Rosin in 305 

Rubbing down 311,314 

Sanding 258-259 

Size of industry 292 



GENERAL INDEX 



593 



Sticks 316, 573-574 

Stiffens ■ and holds up fuzz 

for sanding 104-105 

Stored in wood or glass 311 

Substitute, formula 458 

Substitutes not as good. .291. 294 

Testing 305-306 

Thin with alcohol 311-312 

Used thin 310 

Uses 293-294 

Varnish for brass, formula.. 541 
Veneer checking remedied bv 

100-101 

Where cultivated 292-293 

Sheraton Mahogany Fin- 
ish — ■ 
Formula 461 

Shop Notes — 

For Finishing Room 488 

S^LEX — 

In varnish surfacer 256 

Makes clear filler 174 

Pigment for filler 119, 120, 125 

Silica — 

As pigment for filler 125 

Silver Oak Finish 205,210 

Formula 461 

Silvering — 

Mirrors 525-534 

Sixteenth Century English 
Oak Finish — 

Process 188 

Smoke Stack — 

Painting 393 

Solubility — 

Of color material 

75, 76-78, 93-96, 170-171 

Solvents — 

For oil stains, impurities in.. 

182-186 

Naphtha, properties a'^d 

uses 231,232 

Shellac 311-312 

Texico spirits, comparative 

with turps 375 

Water, care in use of 75 

See also Acids; Lacquer; 
Oils; Stains; Turpentine. 
Specific Gravity — 

Varnish test • 284 

Spirit Mahogany Finish — 
Producing with Bismark 
brown 170-171 



Spirit Stain — 

Early English formula 421 

Nature of, is a suspension... 96 

On imitation mahogany 175 

Process of applying 241 

Treatment of sap streaks 

with 88 

Value of 62,64-65,69,226 

Weathered oak formulas 473 

See also Alcohol Stain. 

Spirit Varnish — 

Avoid for high class work.... 281 

Sponging — 

Resinous woods 91 

SI'Ray — 

Finishing with 239, 329-334 

Staining — 

Application of stains 

55-58, 79-81, 91-92 

Acid and alkaline stains to 

same piece 64 

Each color separately if 

uncertain 35, 73-74 

Brushes for 58,79-80 

Certainty of results, obtain- 
ing 67-68 

Cleanliness of containers 

important 68, 75 

Clear solution is essential.... 

73-75,93-96 

Definition of 83-84 

Depth of color obtained by 

rubbing with oil 85-86 

Development of art 33 

Good staining not merely col- 
oring 93 

Ideal light for 23 

Inside of case good3....57, 223-224 

Knotty surfaces 88-89 

Large surfaces 87-90 

Natural aptness for work re- 
quired 55 

Process of fuming oak 155-160 

Protection of hands 80-81 

Records of experiments 30-32 

Re-staining patches 58 

Sap streaks, methods of 

overcoming 87-88 

Speed necessary 55 

Sponge for 79 

Time between coats 73 

Uniformity of method desir- 
able 55-56 

See also Blending; Color 



594 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



Materials; Dipping; Dry- 
ing; Ebonizing; Enamel- 
ing; Finishing; Formulas; 
Fuming; Graining; Match- 
ings; Stains; Surfacing; 
Varnish; Veneers. 
Stains — 

Care of materials 243-244 

Classification 61-65, 83-85 

Composition 61-65 

Cost of 68-69 

Dipping proce-ss, prepara- 
tion and application 112-116 

Filter for 77 

Formulas 409-473 

Matching, procedure 247-252 

Mixed dry, shake before us- 
ing 243 

Odd shades, producing 67-68 

Penetration of 91-96 

Permanency and fastness of 

34-37,92 

Pigments should not be used 

in 170 

Prepared, changing shade 

of 225-227 

Requisites of 34 

Samples of, kept in stock. 243 

Sediment in mahogany stain, 

cause 171 

Transparent, essential . .173-175 
Uniform standard, method 

of maintaining 167-168 

Wood's reaction to, varied. -71-72 
See also Acid Stains; Al- 
cohol Stain ; Alkaline 
Stains; Aniline Dyes; 
Black Stains; Chemical 
Stains; Color Materials; 
Colors ; E b o n i z i n g ; 
Enamel ; Formulas ; 
Matchings; Oil Stains; 
Spirit Stain; S'taining; 
Turpentine Stain; Water 
Sta;n. 
Steam Coil — 

Facilitates fuming process.. 

135,137 

Steam Heating 20 

Steam Pipes — 

Location of, in finishing 

room 20 

Stock — 

Raw finished, storage of..377-378 
Stopping — 

Cabinet maker's, formula.557-558 



Storage — 

Dark place for finished 

stock 23 

Oils, etc 383-387 

Raw finished stock 377-378 

Stratford Oak Finish — 

Formula 462 

Process 188 

Sulphate of Iron — 

Caution about using 244 

Sunlight — 

Avoid in storing raw stock.. 

377-378 

Direct rays of sun to be 

avoided in finishing 23 

Effect of, on colors 36, 92 

Fades leather 568 

Spirit stain fades in 241 

Surfacing 253-259 

Formula, for dipping pro- 
cess 268 

Table Top — 

Acid proof, formulas for.. 543-544 
Tanking Process — 

See Dipping. 
Tanned Bark Extract — 

Strengthens fuming 142 

Tannic Acid — 

Formula for producing 

browns with tannin 201 

Fuming facilitated by use of 

152-153 

Important factor in produc- 
ing color 177-178 

Nature of 161-162 

Tannin — 

In wood, effects stains 71-72 

Nature of 161-162 

Not uniformly present in dif- 
ferent boards 178 

Tar Oil — 

Heavy, use of, in finishing 

room 229 

Teak — 

Chinese, formula 417 

Temperature — 

Even, in dipping process, es- 
sentials 113 

For varnish..253-254, 259, 272-274 

Fuming box 138 

Piano show rooms 511 

Silvering mirrors 525, 526 

Tests — 

Colorimeter for 399-401 



GENERAL INDEX 



595 



For color uniformity in dip- 
ping 114-115 

Linseed oil 324-325 

Matchings 170 

Sandpaper 53 

Varnish 279-281, 283-285 

Texico Spirits — 

Solvent comparative with 

turpentine 375 

Thermostat 20 

Tin— 

Formula for sticking paper 
to 515 

Solder, removing, formula... 548 
Tobacco Brown Finish — 

Formula 462 

Toluol — 

Properties and uses....230, 231-232 
TooNA Stain — 

Formulas 454 

Toys — 

Polishing by tumbling 505 

Trucks — 

Use of, in finishing opera- 
tion 19 

Tumbling — 

Polishing by 505 

Turned Wood — 

Polishing by tumbling 505 

See also End Wood. 
Turpaline — 

Substitute for turpentine.... 209 
Turpentine — 

Government regulation of 
sale of 373-375 

Solvent for varnish 275 

Substitute for 209 

Turpentine Stain — 

Method of applying 58 

Preventing lifting 255 

U. S. P.— 

Meaning of 335 

Union Furniture Co. — 

Fuming box 143-146 

United States Pharmaco- 
poeia — 

Standard Work 335 

Vacuum Heating System 19 

Van Dyke Brown Finish — 

On gum wood, formula 462 

Varnish — 

Applying 259-262 

Benzol in 234-235 

Brilliancy and lustre, de- 
pend on resin 281-282 



Brush, care of 261, 391 

Buying, testing before 283-285 

Cleanliness in using 260-261 

Defects in 276-278, 287-288 

Drying 252-254, 259-260, 262, 288 
Atmospheric conditions 

important 271-272 

Room, location 18-19 

Systems 273-274 

Durability, producing 281-282 

Good, qualities of 279 

Hair lines in, cause of 277-278 

Ingredients 275 

Lustreless finish, producing 

266-267 

Manufacture of 275-276 

Polishing 263, 265-266 

Reducer 259 

Refinishing 288 

Removing — 

Benzol removes 233 

Formulas 276-277,547-555 

Rubbing ...260, 262-265 

Sanding 50-51 

Satin finish, producing 266 

Scratches, obliterating 277 

S'pirit, avoid for high class 

work 281 

Sticky pews, remedy 519 

Surfacer 254-257 

Sweating 277-288 

Terms applied to 289-290 

Testing 279-281 

Before buying 283-285 

Water marks on, removing.. 548 

Whitening, remedy 277 

See also Lacquer; Shellac. 
Vaseline — 

Protects hands from stain. .80-81 

Substitute for 81 

Vegetable Colors — 

Care of 76 

Samples of, should be kept.. 244 
Table of combinations to 

produce stains 220-222 

Uncertainty of 35-36, 177 

Vegetable Filler — 

Disadvantages of 117 

Good for some woods 125 

Veneers — 

Blisters in, cause and rem- 
edy 105-107, 574 

Changing finish 227-228 

Checks in — 

Cause 97-100 



596 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



Remedy 100-101 

Crotch- 
Checking, remedy 89 

Filling holes in 109-110 

Drying 99-100 

Laying of 99-100 

Preparation for staining.. 103-108 
Sponging — 

Advantages 104, 105-108 

Ventilation — 

Finishing room 17-19 

Fuming box 143, 148 

In drying varnish 262 

Viscosity — 

Varnish test 284 

Walnut — 

Alpine 195 

Antique 317-318 

Bleaching 193-195 

Filler for 125 

Finishes for 193-195 

Gum wood substitute for.. 245-246 

Italian 319-320 

Stains, formulas 465-466,475 

Standard American, formula 475 

Walnut Brown Stain Fin- 
ish — 
Insoluble portion in 94-95 

Water — 

Care in use of, as solvent 75 

Water Stains — 

Advantages of 61-62,65,69 

Anilines furnish 95 per cent 

of 177 

Application of 57-58, 91-92 

Color value of, highest 226 

Colors which will produce 

any shade 226 

Golden oak, formula 466 

In dipping process 112-113 

On filled wood practical 213 

Treatment of sap streaks 

vdth 88 

Used on high grade furni- 
ture largely 173,226 

Wax— 

Formula 318 

For water dressings on 

leather 564 

Furniture city, formula 445 

Palmetto, formula 457 

Paraffine 391, 505 

Wax Finish 121 

Protection from water 516 



Water marks on, remedy 516 

Wayne System of Storage 

Tanks 383-387 

Weathered Oak Finish — 

Formulas 466-475 

Weights and Measures 403-408 

Metric system 407-408 

Tables, standards in United 

States 405-407 

Variation in 26-28 

Whitewash — 

Undesirable in finishing 

room 21-22 

Wijs-Lang-Muir — ■ 

Method of testing shellac 305 

Willow — 

Coloring 197-198 

Withers, J. W. — 

Cost keeping 381-382 

Wood — 

Acid proof, formula 543-544 

Bleaching 215-216 

Changes in, effect stain 37 

Close-grained 390 

Color absorption, variations 

in 111,112 

Discolored naturally, difficult 

to remedy 516 

Glue for, formula 497 

Iron spots in, removing 216 

Kept in warm place, more 

penetrating 91 

Locality variations in 72 

Open-grained 390 

Porous, filling 117 

Preparation of, for finishing 

processes 41-45 

Reaction to stains varied .71-72 
Seasoning and drying neces- 
sary ." 39-40 

Stains should bring out 

beauties of 34,93 

Stains on, bleaching 516,519 

Tannin in, effects stain 71 

Texture of, effects stain 72 

Wood Putties 557-561 

Woods — See Birch; Bird's-Eye 

Maple; Driftwood; End 

Wood; Gum Wood; Knots; 

Mahogany; Maple; Oak; 

Pine; Rosewood; Walnut; 

Willow. 



Zaponite — 
Wood Lacquer 



.... 342 



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YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 



FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 



YOUR OWN FORMULAS 













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